Welcome to Changing Relations: Northern Ireland and its Neighbours (1920–49)
Welcome to your study notes for Unit 1 Section B: Local Study! In this unit, we explore how Northern Ireland developed as a new state and how its relationships with its two closest neighbours—Great Britain and the Irish Free State / Éire—changed dramatically over three turbulent decades.
Don't worry if this topic seems packed with laws, treaties, and political leaders at first! We will break everything down step-by-step into clear, bite-sized sections with easy memory aids so you feel confident for your exam.
Who are the "Neighbours"?
Always be crystal clear in your exam answers about which neighbour you are discussing:
• Neighbour 1: Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales — the central UK government in Westminster).
• Neighbour 2: The South of Ireland (known as Southern Ireland, then the Irish Free State from 1922, then Éire after 1937, and later the Republic of Ireland in 1949).
Part 1: The Creation of Northern Ireland (1920–1925)
To understand the relations between Northern Ireland and its neighbours, we must look at how the border came to exist in the first place.
1. The Government of Ireland Act (1920)
Passed by the British Parliament, this act created the legal basis for the Partition of Ireland into two separate areas:
• Northern Ireland (6 north-eastern counties with a Unionist/Protestant majority).
• Southern Ireland (26 southern counties with a Nationalist/Catholic majority).
Each part was offered its own devolved parliament under British authority.
2. The Opening of the Northern Ireland Parliament (22 June 1921)
On 22 June 1921, King George V officially opened the new Northern Ireland Parliament at Belfast City Hall. In his speech, he called for peace, tolerance, and reconciliation across the whole island.
3. The Anglo-Irish Treaty (December 1921)
After the Irish War of Independence, British and Irish leaders signed the Anglo-Irish Treaty in December 1921. This established the 26 southern counties as the self-governing Irish Free State. Northern Ireland chose to opt out of the Free State and remain part of the United Kingdom.
4. The Boundary Commission (1924–1925)
The 1921 Treaty included a clause to set up a Boundary Commission to examine the border. Nationalists hoped large areas (such as Tyrone, Fermanagh, and Derry/Londonderry) would be transferred to the Free State. However, in 1925, the Commission failed to make any major changes. The original six-county border remained untouched, cementing Partition for good.
Key Terms & Laws in the New Northern Ireland
• Partition: The division of the island of Ireland into two separate political entities.
• Special Powers Act (1922): A wide-ranging law giving the Northern Ireland government extraordinary powers to maintain law and order, including internment (arrest and imprisonment) without trial.
• Gerrymandering: The redrawing of voting boundaries to ensure Unionist majorities in local government councils, even in areas with large Nationalist populations like Derry/Londonderry.
Quick Memory Tip — Don't Confuse the Two Acts!
• 1920 (Government of Ireland Act): Created Northern Ireland and established Partition.
• 1921 (Anglo-Irish Treaty): Created the Irish Free State and led to the Boundary Commission.
Key Takeaway for Part 1: Between 1920 and 1925, Northern Ireland was legally established, secured its own parliament, and cemented its six-county border with the Irish Free State.
Part 2: Key Political Leaders
Understanding the key personalities helps explain why relations between Belfast, Dublin, and London were often tense.
• Sir James Craig (Lord Craigavon): The first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (1921–1940). A staunch Unionist leader who famously described Northern Ireland as having a "Protestant Parliament and a Protestant State" to reassure his supporters.
• Éamon de Valera: Leader of the political party Fianna Fáil and head of government (President of the Executive Council / Taoiseach) in the South. He introduced a new Constitution in 1937 that renamed the state Éire and claimed sovereignty over the whole island.
• John Miller Andrews: The second Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (1940–1943), who led the government during the difficult early years of the Second World War.
• Sir Basil Brooke (Lord Brookeborough): The third Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (1943–1963), who led the region during the latter part of the war and the post-war reconstruction.
Key Takeaway for Part 2: Strong ideological divisions between Craig in Belfast (protecting the Union) and de Valera in Dublin (pushing for full Irish independence and unity) kept relations distant and frosty during the 1920s and 1930s.
Part 3: Tensions & Agreements in the 1930s
Relations between Britain and the Irish Free State went through a major crisis in the 1930s before settling down just before the outbreak of world war.
1. The Economic War (1932–1938)
When Éamon de Valera came to power in 1932, he withheld land annuities (repayments owed to Britain for buying out landlords). In response, the British government put heavy taxes (tariffs) on agricultural imports from Ireland. De Valera retaliated by placing tariffs on British coal and manufactured goods. This dispute damaged trade on both sides and worsened relations across the border.
2. The Anglo-Irish Agreement (1938)
By 1938, both sides wanted to resolve their differences as the threat of war grew in Europe. The agreement achieved three key things:
• Settled the land annuities dispute with a one-off payment.
• Ended the trade tariffs of the Economic War.
• Handed back the "Treaty Ports" (three deep-water naval bases: Berehaven, Cobh, and Lough Swilly) from British control to Éire.
Why did the return of the Treaty Ports matter to Northern Ireland? Handing them back meant that when war broke out, Britain could not use southern ports to protect Atlantic shipping routes, making Northern Ireland’s ports and airfields vital to the British war effort.
Key Takeaway for Part 3: The Economic War strained relations in the 1930s, but the 1938 Agreement repaired trade and transferred the Treaty Ports to Éire, directly raising the strategic value of Northern Ireland.
Part 4: World War II / The Emergency (1939–1945)
The Second World War showed the sharpest contrast in relations between Northern Ireland, Great Britain, and Éire.
Two Very Different Responses to the War
• Northern Ireland: As part of the UK, Northern Ireland joined the war effort immediately. Its shipyards (building warships), aircraft factories, and agriculture were vital to Britain's survival. Its geography provided crucial bases for guarding Atlantic convoy routes.
• Éire: Maintained a policy of strict Neutrality (officially referred to in Éire as "The Emergency") under Éamon de Valera. Éire refused to join the Allied war effort or allow Britain to use its ports.
The Belfast Blitz (April & May 1941)
Northern Ireland was ill-prepared for direct attack. In April and May 1941, the German air force (Luftwaffe) launched four devastating bombing raids on Belfast. Hundreds of civilians were killed, and huge areas of residential housing and industry were destroyed.
A Surprising Moment of Cooperation: Southern Aid
Did you know? Despite political differences and Éire’s official policy of neutrality, Éamon de Valera agreed to send humanitarian aid north. Fire brigades from Dublin and Drogheda traveled across the border to help fight the flames and rescue civilians during the Belfast Blitz. This is one of the most important pieces of evidence showing practical cross-border sympathy during a severe crisis.
Key Takeaway for Part 4: World War II strengthened the link between Northern Ireland and Great Britain because of NI’s strategic contribution, while Éire remained neutral. However, the Belfast Blitz saw a rare moment of southern support when fire crews crossed the border to help.
Part 5: Post-War Relations & The Ireland Act (1949)
After the war, the constitutional relationship between the neighbours reached a permanent milestone.
1. The Declaration of the Republic (1949)
In 1949, the southern government severed its final constitutional ties with the British Crown and declared itself the Republic of Ireland, formally leaving the British Commonwealth.
2. The Ireland Act (1949)
In response to the creation of the Republic, the British Parliament passed the Ireland Act (1949). This act contained a vital constitutional guarantee for Unionists:
• It confirmed that Northern Ireland would remain part of the United Kingdom unless the Parliament of Northern Ireland decided otherwise.
This law gave Northern Ireland an official British veto against any attempt by Dublin or Westminster to create a united Ireland without Stormont's consent.
Timeline Recap (1920–1949):
• 1920: Government of Ireland Act (Partition created).
• 1921: Opening of NI Parliament (June) & Anglo-Irish Treaty (Dec).
• 1924–25: Boundary Commission confirms the border.
• 1932–38: The Economic War between Britain and the Irish Free State.
• 1938: Anglo-Irish Agreement returns Treaty Ports to Éire.
• 1939–45: World War II (NI participates; Éire stays neutral).
• 1941: Belfast Blitz (Dublin fire brigades assist).
• 1949: Ireland Act passed by Westminster, guaranteeing NI’s place in the UK.
Part 6: Exam Skills & Pitfall Buster for Unit 1 Section B
Section B questions test both your knowledge of local historical events and your ability to analyze historical sources.
1. Common Exam Pitfalls to Avoid
• Pitfall 1: Geographic Confusion: Never say just "Ireland" or "the government". Clearly state whether you mean the Northern Ireland government (Craig/Andrews/Brooke), the Westminster/British government, or the Dublin government (de Valera).
• Pitfall 2: Confusing the 1937 Constitution with the 1949 Ireland Act: The 1937 Constitution was passed in Dublin (renaming the state Éire), while the 1949 Ireland Act was passed in London (guaranteeing NI’s status in the UK).
• Pitfall 3: Forgetting Southern Aid during the Blitz: When asked about relations during WWII, always mention that while Éire was neutral, fire engines from Dublin and Drogheda assisted Belfast in 1941.
2. Mastering Source Questions: Utility vs. Reliability
In Unit 1 Section B, examiners frequently ask how useful a source is.
• Reliability: Can you trust what the source says? (Check who wrote it, when, why, and whether it shows strong bias).
• Utility: How useful is the source to a historian studying the topic?
• Golden Rule: A source does not have to be 100% truthful to be useful! Even a heavily biased source (like a political speech by James Craig or Éamon de Valera) is extremely useful because it shows historians exactly what that leader believed, felt, and wanted the public to think.
Quick Source Evaluation Checklist:
1. Content: What facts or viewpoints does the source provide?
2. Context & Own Knowledge: Does the source match what was happening at that time (e.g. during the Economic War or the Blitz)?
3. Provenance (Author, Date, Purpose): Why was it created? Does the perspective make it valuable for understanding one side of the story?