🗺️ Study Notes: How did the Second World War in Europe develop? (1939–c.1942)

Hello Historians! This chapter is crucial because it covers the first explosive years of the war, where Nazi Germany seemed unbeatable. We will trace Hitler's rapid conquests and examine the key moments—the turning points—when his momentum was finally stopped.

1. Hitler's Rapid Conquests: The Era of Blitzkrieg (1939–1940)

The initial phase of the war was dominated by the German military tactic known as Blitzkrieg (meaning "Lightning War"). Don't worry if this sounds complicated—it just means attacking incredibly quickly and forcefully, using movement rather than static defence (like the trenches of the First World War).

Key Features of Blitzkrieg
  • Speed and Surprise: Attacking before the enemy could mobilise.
  • Tanks (Panzers): Massed tank divisions broke through enemy lines quickly.
  • Air Support (Luftwaffe): Dive bombers (Stukas) knocked out communication, transport, and troop concentrations ahead of the tanks.
A. The Invasion of Poland (September 1939)

The invasion of Poland was the start of the war in Europe. Britain and France had guaranteed Poland's independence, and their failure to protect it led directly to the declaration of war against Germany.

  • The invasion lasted only a few weeks.
  • Poland was swiftly defeated by the combined force of German Blitzkrieg from the west and the Soviet invasion from the east (as agreed in the Nazi-Soviet Pact).
B. The Fall of Western Europe (April–June 1940)

After a period of waiting (known as the Phoney War), Germany launched massive attacks in the spring of 1940.

  • Germany quickly overwhelmed Denmark and Norway.
  • In May 1940, Germany invaded the Netherlands, Belgium, and France by bypassing the French defensive line, the Maginot Line, through the Ardennes forest.
  • The speed of the attack trapped large numbers of Allied troops (British, French, and Belgian) on the northern coast of France.
The "Miracle" of Dunkirk

Trapped Allied troops were cornered in the French port of Dunkirk. This led to a massive, desperate evacuation effort (Operation Dynamo).

  • 338,000 Allied soldiers were rescued, largely due to hundreds of small private boats ("Little Ships") sailing across the Channel.
  • Consequence: While a military defeat (all equipment was left behind), it was a huge morale boost for Britain, saving the core of its fighting force.
France Surrenders

France surrendered on 22 June 1940. Germany controlled the north and west of France, while a collaborationist French government, known as Vichy France, ruled the south.

Quick Review: By mid-1940, Hitler controlled or influenced almost all of Western and Central Europe. Only Britain stood alone.

2. Why Germany Was Unable to Conquer Britain (1940–1941)

Hitler’s next target was Britain. His plan was called Operation Sea Lion (the invasion of Britain). However, he knew he couldn't invade until he controlled the skies.

The Battle of Britain (Summer 1940)

This was the first major battle in history fought entirely by air forces: the German Luftwaffe versus the British Royal Air Force (RAF).

The primary focus points for German attacks were:

  1. RAF airfields and radar stations (to destroy the British air force).
  2. Aircraft factories.
Why did Germany fail to win air superiority?
  • Radar Technology: Britain had developed Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging). This gave the RAF advance warning of incoming German raids, allowing them to use their smaller force more efficiently. (Think of Radar as an early warning alarm system.)
  • The Home Advantage: RAF pilots who were shot down often survived and could fly again. German pilots who bailed out became prisoners of war.
  • Hitler’s Strategic Mistake (The Blitz): Frustrated by the lack of progress, Hitler changed his strategy in September 1940, shifting the bombing campaign from military targets (airfields) to civilian cities (like London). This was called The Blitz.
  • Consequence of the Blitz: This gave the RAF airfields time to recover, and although the British people suffered terribly, their morale remained strong (the "Blitz Spirit"). The invasion (Operation Sea Lion) was indefinitely postponed.

Key Takeaway: By failing to defeat the RAF, Hitler was denied the chance to launch a seaborne invasion. Britain survived.

3. The Invasion of the Soviet Union: Operation Barbarossa (1941)

Since Hitler failed in the West, he turned East. Despite the Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939, Hitler had always intended to conquer the USSR.

A. Reasons for Operation Barbarossa
  • Ideology: Hitler hated Communism and viewed the Slav people as inferior. He wanted to destroy the Soviet regime.
  • Resources: Germany desperately needed Soviet oil fields (especially in the Caucasus) and agricultural land (in Ukraine) for Lebensraum (living space).
  • Defeat of Britain: Hitler believed if he defeated the USSR, Britain would lose its only potential major ally and be forced to surrender.
B. The Initial Nazi Successes

The invasion began on 22 June 1941. It was the largest military invasion in history.

Initial progress was staggering. Stalin was caught completely by surprise, and German forces, employing Blitzkrieg, captured millions of Soviet soldiers and advanced hundreds of miles toward key cities like Leningrad, Moscow, and Stalingrad.

Did You Know?
The original plan was for a quick, three-month campaign. Hitler assumed the Soviet system would collapse immediately.
C. Why the Invasion Failed

The German advance stalled by late 1941 due to a number of factors:

  • Vast Distance: The supply lines stretched over thousands of miles, making it impossible to keep the front lines properly supplied.
  • Soviet Resistance (Scorched Earth): The Soviets implemented a Scorched Earth policy—destroying crops, infrastructure, and factories as they retreated, denying the Germans crucial supplies.
  • The Russian Winter: The invasion started later than planned, and the Germans were ill-equipped for the devastatingly cold Russian winter (temperatures dropping to -40°C). Equipment froze, and soldiers suffered massive casualties from the cold.

Memory Aid (Why Barbarossa Failed): Think of the 4 S's:
1. Surprise (Wore off)
2. Supplies (Overstretched)
3. Scorched Earth (Lack of resources)
4. Snow/Winter (Too cold)

4. The Turning Point in Europe: Stalingrad (1942–1943)

The war in Europe reached its definitive turning point in the city of Stalingrad, located on the Volga River.

A. Why Stalingrad?

Hitler needed Stalingrad for two main reasons:

  1. Symbolic Value: The city was named after Stalin (a major morale target).
  2. Strategic Value: It controlled vital access to the Caucasus oil fields to the south.
B. The Battle and Its Consequences
  • The fighting was brutal, reduced to house-to-house combat in the ruins of the city.
  • In late 1942, the Soviet Red Army successfully launched a counter-offensive (Operation Uranus) and encircled the German Sixth Army.
  • Hitler forbade the Sixth Army from retreating, leading to their complete destruction.
  • The German commander, Field Marshal Paulus, surrendered in February 1943.
Impact of the Defeat at Stalingrad

Stalingrad was a disaster for Nazi Germany and the decisive turning point of the European war.

  • Massive Losses: Germany lost a quarter of a million soldiers and its Sixth Army—a devastating, irreplaceable loss of manpower and equipment.
  • End of Expansion: From this point on, Germany was mostly fighting a defensive war on the Eastern Front.
  • Boosted Soviet Morale: It proved that the German army could be defeated, strengthening the confidence of the Soviet military and people.
Key Takeaway for Struggling Students:
The war developed in three stages:
1. 1939–1940: Rapid Blitzkrieg success (Poland, France, Dunkirk).
2. 1940: Hitler fails to defeat Britain (Battle of Britain/Radar/RAF).
3. 1941–1943: Hitler invades the USSR and is decisively halted at Stalingrad, which marks the point where the tide turned permanently against Germany.