Introduction: Meet Cicero, the Shield of the Republic

Welcome to one of the most exciting parts of your Classical Civilisation course! In this chapter, we are looking at Marcus Tullius Cicero and his relationship with the res publica (the Roman Republic). If you think of the Late Roman Republic as a crumbling building, Cicero was the man trying desperately to shore up the walls and keep the roof from falling in.

Cicero wasn’t just a politician; he was a philosopher who believed that the Roman system of government was the best ever created. This chapter explores his ideas on how the state should be run and his lifelong mission to protect it from powerful "strongmen" like Julius Caesar. By the end of these notes, you'll understand why Cicero’s vision for Rome was both noble and, ultimately, very difficult to achieve.


What is the "Res Publica"?

The term res publica literally translates to "the public thing" or "the business of the people." For Cicero, this wasn't just a fancy name for the government. It represented a specific way of life where:

  • The Law was supreme: No single person should be above the law.
  • Power was shared: Authority was split between the Senate, the magistrates, and the people.
  • Duty was key: Citizens (especially the wealthy) had a moral duty to serve the state.

Analogy: Think of the res publica like a professional sports team. No one player (like Caesar) is allowed to be bigger than the club. There are rules everyone must follow, and everyone has a specific role to play to make the team successful.


Cicero’s Core Political Ideas

Cicero didn't just want to keep things the same; he had a specific "recipe" for a healthy Roman state. Here are the two most important ingredients you need to know for your exam:

1. Concordia Ordinum (Harmony of the Orders)

Cicero believed that the Republic was strongest when the two most powerful groups in Rome worked together: the Senators (the political elite) and the Equites (the wealthy businessmen). He called this "Harmony of the Orders." He believed that if these two groups stopped fighting and united, they could block any "popularis" politician or general from seizing total power.

2. Consensus Omnium Bonorum (Agreement of all Good Men)

Later in his career, Cicero expanded this idea. He argued for a "Consensus of all Good Men." This meant that everyone—not just the rich, but any "good" citizen who loved the Republic—should stand together against those who tried to destroy the traditional system. To Cicero, a "good man" (bonus) was anyone who respected the law and the authority of the Senate.

Quick Tip: If you find these Latin terms tricky, just remember Harmony and Agreement. Cicero wanted everyone on the "same page" to stop the Republic from collapsing!


Cicero as the "New Man" (Novus Homo)

It is important to remember that Cicero was a novus homo. This means he was the first person in his family to become a Senator and reach the consulship (the highest office). Unlike many of his rivals who came from famous, old families, Cicero had to rely on his talent, hard work, and oratory (public speaking).

Because he had "earned" his way to the top of the res publica, he valued the system even more. He wanted to prove that the Republic was a place where merit and tradition mattered more than just having a famous last name or a big army.


The Threats to the Res Publica

Cicero spent his life fighting against what he saw as "threats" to the state. These usually fell into two categories:

1. Debt and Revolution: He famously stopped the Catilinarian Conspiracy during his consulship in 63 BC. He believed that radicals who wanted to cancel debts were trying to destroy the stability of the res publica.

2. Military Dynasts: Cicero was deeply worried by generals who used their private armies to bully the Senate. This included his complicated relationships with Pompey and, most famously, Julius Caesar. While Cicero admired Caesar’s talent, he hated Caesar’s role as a dictator because a dictator is the opposite of a res publica—it is "one man’s business" rather than "the people’s business."

Note: For more on how Cicero felt about specific leaders, see the chapters on Caesar as popularis and dictator and Cicero’s Selected Letters.


Common Pitfalls to Avoid

  • Don't think Cicero was perfect: While he loved the Republic, modern historians often point out he could be vain and sometimes ignored the problems of the poor.
  • Don't confuse "Republic" with "Democracy": Rome’s res publica was not a modern democracy. Cicero firmly believed that the Senate (the elite) should be the "guiding head" of the state, not the common people.
  • Focus on the Philosophy: In this chapter, examiners are looking for your understanding of his ideas about the state, not just a list of his life events.

Key Takeaways

The Goal: Cicero wanted to preserve the mos maiorum (the customs of the ancestors) and the traditional power of the Senate.

The Method: Use concordia ordinum (harmony between the rich) to provide a stable front against radicals.

The Tragedy: Despite his brilliant speeches and books on political theory, Cicero lived in an age where military force was becoming more powerful than political debate. His beloved res publica was failing, and he died trying to save it.


Quick Review Quiz

1. What does res publica literally mean? (Answer: The public thing / the business of the people).

2. What was the concordia ordinum? (Answer: The alliance between the Senators and the Equites).

3. Why did Cicero’s status as a novus homo affect his views? (Answer: He valued the system that allowed him to rise through merit and talent).

4. Who did Cicero see as the biggest threat to the state? (Answer: Anyone who placed themselves above the law, particularly military dictators or revolutionary radicals).