Introduction: The Shift to Radical Democracy

Welcome! After the foundations laid by Solon and Cleisthenes (which you can review in the previous chapter), Athenian democracy didn't just stop evolving. In the 5th century BC, a period often called the "Golden Age," the system became even more democratic. This phase is often known as Radical Democracy. We are going to look at how two key figures—Ephialtes and Pericles—stripped power away from the old "elite" institutions and gave it directly to the ordinary citizens.

The Areopagus: The Old Guard

To understand the 5th-century changes, we first need to look at the Areopagus. This was a council made up of ex-archons (the high-ranking magistrates of Athens). Because you had to be from the wealthier classes to be an archon, the Areopagus was a very traditional, conservative, and elite body.

What were its powers?
Originally, the Areopagus acted as a "guardian of the laws." It had the power to supervise the magistrates and even veto certain decisions. It wasn't elected by the people, and its members served for life. To many radical democrats, this felt like a "stumbling block" to true people-power.

Quick Review: Think of the Areopagus like a traditional "Upper House" or a council of elders. They weren't accountable to the Ekklesia (the Assembly), which made them a target for reformers.

Ephialtes and the Reforms of 462/1 BC

Ephialtes is a name you must remember, even though he often sits in the shadow of Pericles. In 462 BC, he led a political movement to break the power of the Areopagus.

What did he do?
Ephialtes passed laws that stripped the Areopagus of its "added powers." He didn't abolish it entirely, but he restricted it to only hearing homicide cases (murder trials) and some religious crimes.

Where did the power go?
The powers taken from the Areopagus were redistributed to:
1. The Boule (the Council of 500).
2. The Ekklesia (the Assembly of all citizens).
3. The Dikasteria (the People's Law Courts).

Memory Aid: Ephialtes Ended the Elite power of the Areopagus.

Don't worry if this seems like a lot of jargon! The main takeaway is that Ephialtes took "supervisory" power away from a small group of rich old men and gave it to the large groups of ordinary citizens.

Pericles: The Face of Democracy

After Ephialtes was assassinated (yes, politics was dangerous!), his associate Pericles became the leading statesman in Athens. Pericles is perhaps the most famous figure in Athenian history. He didn't just lead the military; he shaped how democracy felt for the average person.

1. Pay for Service (Misthos)

This was Pericles' "game-changer." Before Pericles, serving on a jury or in the Council took up a lot of time. If you were a poor farmer or a craftsman, you couldn't afford to leave your work for a day to sit in court.

Pericles introduced state pay for jurors. This meant that any citizen, regardless of how poor they were, could afford to participate in the democratic process. This is what truly made the democracy "radical"—it was now physically possible for the poor to govern.

2. The Citizenship Law (451 BC)

Pericles also introduced a law stating that to be a citizen, both your mother and father had to be Athenian. This made Athenian citizenship a very exclusive and "special" club. It increased the sense of pride among the citizens but also made the system more closed-off to outsiders.

Connecting the Sources: Aeschylus and the Areopagus

In your exam, you may be asked about how these developments are reflected in literature. A key source is Aeschylus’ play, Eumenides (lines 674–710).

Context: The play was produced in 458 BC, just a few years after Ephialtes’ reforms. In these lines, the goddess Athena officially establishes the Areopagus as a court for murder trials.

Why does this matter?
1. Respect for the Court: Athena describes the court as a "holy" place that should remain "untouched by greed."
2. Political Commentary: Aeschylus seems to be speaking to his contemporary audience. By having a goddess "fix" the Areopagus as a homicide court, he might be supporting the idea that its legal function is sacred, even if its political powers were removed by Ephialtes.
3. Stability: The passage emphasises that the court prevents "anarchy" and "despotism." It shows that even though the democracy was moving forward, the Athenians still valued the idea of a "middle way" or stability.

Key Takeaway for Essays: Use Aeschylus to show that the Areopagus remained a highly respected institution for murder trials, even after it lost its political power to the Assembly.

Summary: Why these developments matter

By the middle of the 5th century BC, the "Democracy of the Athenians" reached its peak. Here is the "Quick Review" of what changed:

  • The Areopagus lost its political "veto" and became just a specialized murder court.
  • Ephialtes was the "radical" who pushed through the laws to empower the people.
  • Pericles introduced pay for jurors, making it possible for the poor (the thetes) to actually use their democratic rights.
  • The Law Courts became the most powerful part of the state, where the people acted as both judge and jury.

Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't say Ephialtes "destroyed" the Areopagus. He just "trimmed its wings." It stayed around for centuries as a prestigious court, as seen in Aeschylus' Eumenides.

Key Terms Check

Areopagus: The traditional council of ex-archons.
Ekklesia: The Assembly of all male citizens.
Dikasteria: The people’s law courts.
Misthos: State pay (introduced by Pericles for jurors).
Radical Democracy: A system where all citizens have a direct and practical role in government.