Welcome to Foundations: Developments in Christian Thought (H173)
Welcome to your study notes for Foundations, covering two central topics in OCR AS Level Religious Studies (Component H173/03: Developments in Christian Thought):
1. Knowledge of God's Existence
2. The Person of Jesus Christ
Why is this unit important? In this paper, you explore the theological roots of Christianity. Instead of doing abstract philosophy proofs, you will explore how Christian thinkers believe God makes Himself known to humanity, and who Jesus Christ truly was. In the exam, you will answer 2 essay questions out of 3 (each worth 30 marks: 15 marks for AO1 Knowledge and Understanding, and 15 marks for AO2 Analysis and Evaluation).
Don't worry if these theological terms seem challenging at first. We will break down every concept step-by-step with clear definitions, analogies, and exam insights.
---Topic 1: Knowledge of God's Existence
Can we know God simply by looking at the world and using our brains, or do we need God to reveal Himself to us directly? Christian theology divides knowledge of God into two broad categories: Natural Knowledge and Revealed Knowledge.
1. Natural Knowledge of God's Existence
Natural theology is the idea that humans can know truths about God through human reason, conscience, and observing the natural world, without needing direct divine revelation.
A. An Innate Sense of the Divine (Within Us)
• Made in the Image of God (Imago Dei): Genesis 1:26–27 states that God created human beings in His own image and likeness. This gives every person an inbuilt capacity and desire to seek and know God.
• John Calvin's Sensus Divinitatis: The 16th-century Protestant reformer John Calvin argued that all humans possess an innate "sense of the divine" (sensus divinitatis) or a "seed of religion" (semen religionis). Calvin pointed out that across human history, no culture has ever been entirely without religion.
• Universal Human Traits: Humans naturally appreciate beauty, seek truth, and recognise moral goodness. Theologians see this universal longing as a reflection of God.
• Human Reason and Conscience: Our intellect allows us to reflect on existence, and our conscience acts as an inner moral compass, giving us an innate awareness of divine moral law.
• Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC 31–46): The official teaching of the Catholic Church affirms that human reason alone can know God with certainty through creation.
B. Seen in the Order of Creation (Around Us)
• General Revelation: God's existence and attributes can be observed through the order, beauty, and purpose of nature.
• Calvin's "Mirror" and "Theatre": Calvin described the natural universe as a mirror or theatre displaying God's glory and craftsmanship.
• Biblical Support: Romans 1:19–20 states that what can be known about God is plain to all people, because God has shown it through what has been made.
Everyday Analogy: Think of natural knowledge like walking into an art gallery. Even if you have never met the artist, you can tell from the paintings that the artist exists, values beauty, and possesses incredible skill.
2. Revealed Knowledge of God's Existence
Revealed theology is the idea that God can only be truly known when God chooses to unveil Himself directly to humanity.
A. Human Limitation and the Fall
• Original Sin: Christian theology teaches that after the Fall (Genesis 3), human minds became corrupted by sin. Our reason is finite and distorted, meaning natural knowledge is insufficient for a full, saving relationship with God.
B. Faith and Grace
• Grace: God's unconditional, unmerited gift through the Holy Spirit, enabling humans to bridge the gap caused by sin.
• Faith: A person's active trust and acceptance of God's divine self-disclosure, going beyond intellectual reasoning.
C. Revelation in Jesus Christ, Scripture, and the Church
• Jesus Christ as the Full Revelation: The ultimate, perfect revelation of God is the person of Jesus Christ—the Word made flesh (Logos, John 1:1–14; Hebrews 1:1–3).
• The Bible (Scripture): The written witness to God's actions and promises throughout salvation history.
• The Church and Sacraments: God continues to reveal Himself through the community of believers and the ongoing sacramental life of the Church.
3. The Great Debate: Barth vs. Brunner (1934)
One of the most famous theological clashes in modern history took place between two Swiss Protestant theologians over natural theology:
Emil Brunner (Defending Natural Theology):
• Brunner argued that the Fall corrupted humanity materially (our moral and spiritual nature is damaged), but not formally.
• A "point of contact" (Anknüpfungspunkt) remains in human reason and capacity for language.
• Nature provides a genuine general revelation that leaves humans aware of God, even though saving knowledge comes only through Christ.
Karl Barth (Rejecting Natural Theology with a Resounding "Nein!"):
• Barth issued an outright rejection of Brunner's ideas.
• He argued that human nature was totally corrupted by the Fall. There is zero "point of contact" left in human reason.
• Natural theology is dangerous because it is a human attempt to reach God on human terms, which Barth called a form of idolatry (human self-justification).
• God is "wholly other"—we can only know God when God chooses to reveal Himself through Jesus Christ.
4. AO2 Evaluation Checklist: Knowledge of God
When writing essay evaluations, consider these key debates:
• Can God be known through reason alone? (Yes: Calvin's sensus divinitatis, CCC 31–46. No: Barth's total corruption argument).
• Is faith alone sufficient to know God? (Yes: Barth argues Christ is the only self-revelation. No: Brunner argues natural reason prepares the way).
• Did the Fall destroy all human capacity to know God? (Brunner says no, formal capacity remains; Barth says yes, humanity is completely blind without grace).
• Is natural knowledge the same as revealed knowledge? (Natural knowledge gives general awareness; revealed knowledge provides personal, saving relationship).
Key Takeaway for Topic 1: Natural knowledge relies on our innate sense (imago Dei, Calvin's sensus divinitatis) and observing creation. Revealed knowledge relies on God's initiative through grace, faith, the Bible, and supremely in Jesus Christ.
---Topic 2: The Person of Jesus Christ
Who was Jesus of Nazareth? In the OCR specification, you explore his authority through three distinct theological paradigms: Jesus as the Son of God, Jesus as a Teacher of Wisdom, and Jesus as a Liberator.
1. Jesus as the Son of God
This traditional Christian paradigm focuses on Jesus' unique divine nature, authority, and identity.
A. Authority Shown Through Miracles and Resurrection
• Miracles as Signs (Semeia): In the Gospels, miracles are not mere magic tricks; they are signs pointing to divine authority over creation, illness, and death (e.g., Jesus walking on water in Mark 6:47–52; healing the man born blind in John 9:1–41).
• The Resurrection: The cornerstone of Christian theology (1 Corinthians 15; Romans 1:4). The resurrection is the ultimate vindication of Jesus' identity, proving his authority over sin and death.
B. The Hypostatic Union & Christological Debates
• The Council of Chalcedon (451 CE): Defined the Hypostatic Union—the doctrine that Jesus Christ is fully God and fully human, united in one person "without confusion, without change, without division, without separation."
• The Problem of Jesus' Self-Knowledge: If Jesus was fully God, was he omniscient (all-knowing)? If he was fully human, how could he have human limitations?
• Karl Rahner's Layered Consciousness: Catholic theologian Karl Rahner used an analogy of an onion or layered consciousness. Just as a human can have deep, subconscious awareness alongside surface-level everyday thinking, Jesus had a deep, non-reflective awareness of his divine identity, while simultaneously having a genuine, developing human consciousness.
2. Jesus as a Teacher of Wisdom
This paradigm emphasises Jesus' moral vision, ethical instruction, and radical message of love.
A. Moral and Spiritual Teachings
• Radical Love and Forgiveness: Centred on agape (unconditional, self-giving love), compassion, and forgiving enemies.
• The Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5–7): Contains the Beatitudes, turning conventional worldly values upside down (e.g., "Blessed are the meek").
• Internal Purity vs. Rigid Legalism: Jesus reinterpreted the Jewish Torah, teaching that inner attitudes (such as anger or lust) matter as much as external actions, challenging social exclusivity and hypocrisy.
B. Scholars and Alternative Views
• John Hick (The Myth of God Incarnate, 1977): Hick argued that Jesus was not literally God in human flesh. Instead, Jesus was an inspiring human moral teacher who was supremely open to and aware of God. For Hick, the Incarnation is a powerful metaphor for God's activity in humanity.
• C.S. Lewis's Trilemma (Mere Christianity): Lewis famously argued that one cannot logically view Jesus as "merely a great human moral teacher." Because Jesus claimed divine authority to forgive sins and judge the world, he must be one of three things:
1. A Liar (deliberately deceiving people),
2. A Lunatic (delusional on the level of someone claiming to be a poached egg), or
3. The Lord (who he claimed to be).
• Tolstoy and Nietzsche: Thinkers who explored Jesus' ethics independently of church dogma—Leo Tolstoy admired Jesus' teaching on non-violence, while Friedrich Nietzsche critiqued Christian morality.
3. Jesus as a Liberator
This paradigm focuses on Jesus as someone who challenged oppressive political, economic, and religious systems.
A. Social, Political, and Religious Liberation
• Standing with the Oppressed (Anawim): Jesus actively spent time with outcasts, tax collectors, prostitutes, the poor, and the sick, restoring their dignity and place in the community.
• Challenging Religious & Political Authorities: Jesus clashed with the Pharisees, Sadducees, and the Sanhedrin over legalism, and his actions challenged the Roman imperial system.
• Radical Incidents in the Gospels: The Cleansing of the Temple (Mark 11:15–18), where Jesus overturned the money changers' tables, and his association with armed disciples (e.g., Simon the Zealot; instructing disciples to buy swords in Luke 22:36–38).
B. Key Thinkers on Jesus as a Liberator
• Reza Aslan (Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth): Aslan argues that the historical Jesus was a Jewish nationalist and political revolutionary fighting for the liberation of Israel from Roman occupation, which is why he was executed for sedition/treason as "King of the Jews".
• S.G.F. Brandon (Jesus and the Zealots, 1967): Brandon argued that the original historical Jesus was closely aligned with Zealot anti-Roman resistance. After the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Gospel writers allegedly sanitised the texts to make Jesus look politically harmless to Roman audiences.
• Gustavo Gutiérrez and Liberation Theology: Gutiérrez points to the Nazareth Manifesto (Luke 4:18–19: "He has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor... to set the oppressed free"). Liberation theology asserts that Jesus brought concrete structural, political, and economic liberation to the marginalised, not just spiritual salvation.
4. AO2 Evaluation Checklist: The Person of Jesus Christ
• Was Jesus only a teacher of wisdom? (Yes: Hick sees the Incarnation as a metaphor. No: Lewis's Trilemma shows Jesus made divine claims that make a "moral teacher only" label impossible; miracles and resurrection show divine authority).
• Was Jesus a political liberator? (Yes: Aslan, Brandon, Gutiérrez highlight his challenge to Rome, the Sanhedrin, and economic injustice. No: Traditional theology argues his kingdom was "not of this world" [John 18:36] and focused on spiritual liberation from sin).
• Can Jesus be all three? (High-level response: Traditional Christian theology sees Jesus as Teacher, Liberator, and Son of God simultaneously—his divine authority empowers his moral wisdom and deepens his liberation of humanity).
Key Takeaway for Topic 2: Jesus is understood as the Son of God (divine identity, miracles, resurrection, Hypostatic Union), a Teacher of Wisdom (moral radical, agape, Sermon on the Mount), and a Liberator (advocate for the poor, challenger of oppressive power structures).
---Common Pitfalls & Examiner Tips
1. Don't confuse Unit 3 (Christian Thought) with Unit 1 (Philosophy):
When answering questions on Knowledge of God's Existence, do not waste time writing out Paley's Watchmaker argument, Aquinas' Five Ways, or Anselm's Ontological argument. Examiners want to see theological concepts: imago Dei, Calvin's sensus divinitatis, grace, faith, and the Barth–Brunner debate.
2. Avoid pure storytelling:
When writing about Jesus as a Liberator or Teacher of Wisdom, do not just retell Sunday school Bible stories. Always link the narrative back to the theological question of Jesus' authority and his nature.
3. Avoid "Either/Or" traps:
Do not assume that because Jesus is a political liberator, he cannot also be the Son of God. Top-band essays show how these roles can be integrated through the Incarnation.
4. Name-drop and apply scholars accurately:
Always weave in specific scholars with their key arguments: Karl Barth ("Nein!", rejection of natural theology), Emil Brunner (point of contact), Karl Rahner (layered consciousness), John Hick (myth/metaphor), C.S. Lewis (Trilemma), Reza Aslan (revolutionary Zealot), and Gustavo Gutiérrez (liberation theology).
Quick Revision Flashcard Summary
• Sensus Divinitatis: Calvin's term for the innate, universal seed/sense of the divine in all human beings.
• General vs. Revealed Revelation: General = God known through nature and reason; Revealed = God known directly through Jesus, Scripture, and Grace.
• Barth vs. Brunner (1934): Brunner argues for a formal "point of contact" in nature; Barth says "Nein!"—the Fall completely destroyed human capacity to know God without Christ.
• Hypostatic Union (Chalcedon 451 CE): Jesus is 100% divine and 100% human in one person without confusion or division.
• Rahner's Consciousness Analogy: Jesus had a deep, non-reflective divine self-awareness alongside a developing human consciousness.
• Hick vs. Lewis: Hick views Jesus as a human metaphor for God's love; Lewis argues Jesus is either Liar, Lunatic, or Lord.
• Aslan & Brandon vs. Gutiérrez: Aslan/Brandon view Jesus as a historical anti-Roman political rebel; Gutiérrez sees Jesus bringing both structural social justice and eternal spiritual liberation.