Welcome to History: The Interregnum (1649–1660)

Imagine waking up one day to find that the King has been executed, the monarchy has been completely abolished, and all of your favourite holidays—including Christmas—are officially banned! That is exactly what happened in 17th-century Britain during a unique 11-year period known as The Interregnum.

In this unit, we will explore how Britain was governed without a monarch, what life was like under strict Puritan rule, what happened during Oliver Cromwell's controversial military campaign in Ireland, and why Britain eventually brought the King back.

Quick Word Breakdown:
The word Interregnum comes from Latin: inter (between) + regnum (reign or rule). It literally means "the time between kings".

1. How Britain Was Governed (1649–1660)

Don't worry if the political changes seem tricky at first! Let's break down the three main stages of government step by step.

Stage 1: The Commonwealth (1649–1653)

Following the execution of King Charles I on 30 January 1649, the monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished. England was declared a republic called The Commonwealth, ruled by a group of politicians known as the Rump Parliament.

However, by April 1653, Oliver Cromwell grew completely frustrated with Parliament's arguments and lack of progress on religious reform. He marched into Parliament with soldiers from the New Model Army and forcibly dissolved (shut down) the Rump Parliament.

Stage 2: The Protectorate (1653–1659)

In December 1653, England established its first written constitution, called the Instrument of Government. This created a new political system known as The Protectorate.

  • The Lord Protector: Oliver Cromwell became head of state. He held executive powers very similar to a monarch.
  • Did Cromwell become King? No! In 1657, Parliament presented Cromwell with the Humble Petition and Advice, offering him the royal crown. Cromwell officially turned down the crown and chose to remain Lord Protector.

Stage 3: Rule of the Major-Generals (1655–1657)

Following a Royalist uprising (Penruddock's Uprising), Cromwell divided England and Wales into military districts. Each district was governed by a Major-General from the army.

  • They enforced strict Puritan moral laws across the country.
  • They introduced a special 10% "decimation tax" on former Royalists to pay for military security.

The Fall of the Republic and the Restoration (1658–1660)

  • Oliver Cromwell died on 3 September 1658.
  • His son, Richard Cromwell (nicknamed "Tumbledown Dick"), became the new Lord Protector. However, Richard lacked political skill and military support, resigning in 1659.
  • With the country sliding into chaos, General George Monck helped arrange the return of Parliament.
  • In May 1660, the monarchy was officially restored when King Charles II (the son of Charles I) returned to the throne in an event called The Restoration.
  • In January 1661, Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey and symbolically hanged at Tyburn.

Key Takeaway: The Interregnum was not a continuous democracy. It shifted from a republican Parliament (1649–1653) to military-backed rule under Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector (1653–1658), before collapsing and leading to the Restoration of Charles II in 1660.

2. Cromwell's Campaign in Ireland (1649–1650)

One of the most important and contested parts of the Interregnum is Oliver Cromwell's military campaign in Ireland.

Why did Cromwell go to Ireland?

  1. Threat of Invasion: Following the 1641 Irish Rebellion, Irish Catholic Confederates formed an alliance with English and Irish Royalists supporting Charles II. The Commonwealth feared Ireland would be used as a springboard to invade England.
  2. Retribution: Cromwell and Parliament sought revenge for alleged massacres of Protestant settlers during the 1641 rebellion.

Key Events of the Campaign

Cromwell landed near Dublin in August 1649 with 12,000 to 15,000 soldiers from the New Model Army.

  • The Siege of Drogheda (September 1649):
    The town was defended by an English Royalist commander, Sir Arthur Aston, who refused Cromwell's demand to surrender. Cromwell's troops breached the town walls and gave no quarter (showed no mercy). Around 3,000 to 3,500 defenders—including the Royalist garrison, Catholic priests, friars, and civilians (many sheltering in St Peter's Church)—were killed.
  • The Siege of Wexford (October 1649):
    While surrender negotiations were taking place, Commonwealth troops broke into the town. An estimated 1,500 to 2,000 soldiers and civilians were killed, and the harbour was sacked.

The Aftermath: The Act for the Settlement of Ireland (1652)

  • Land Confiscation: Massive amounts of Catholic-owned land were confiscated to pay off Commonwealth war debts and pay soldiers.
  • "To Hell or to Connacht": Native Catholic landowners were forced to move west of the River Shannon into the province of Connacht.
  • Transportation: Thousands of Irish soldiers and civilians were transported as indentured labourers to English colonies in the Caribbean, particularly Barbados.

Key Takeaway: Cromwell's campaign brutally crushed Royalist and Irish resistance at Drogheda and Wexford, leading to massive land confiscations under the 1652 Act for the Settlement of Ireland and creating centuries of bitter division.

3. Puritan Social and Religious Life

What was daily life like for ordinary people during the Interregnum? Oliver Cromwell and the ruling Puritans wanted to build a strictly godly society.

Puritan Moral Laws: Banning Fun?

The government introduced strict rules to eliminate sin and focus people on God:

  • Christmas and Easter were Banned: Traditional Christian festivals and saints' days were outlawed. On 25 December, shops were ordered to stay open, and soldiers patrolled the streets to confiscate festive food like mince pies and roast goose!
  • Closing Theatres: All public playhouses and theatres were shut down.
  • Banning Pastimes: Sports on Sundays, gambling, cock-fighting, bear-baiting, and excessive drinking were banned.
  • Strict Sundays: The Lord's Day (Sunday) was reserved strictly for prayer and church attendance. Working or playing games on Sunday was forbidden.

Religious Policy: Who Had Freedom?

  • Abolition of Anglican Structures: Bishops were removed, and the traditional Anglican Book of Common Prayer was banned.
  • Toleration for Protestant Sects: Cromwell granted religious freedom to various Protestant Nonconformist groups, including Baptists, Congregationalists, Quakers, and Independents.
  • Who was Excluded? Religious freedom was strictly denied to Roman Catholics and traditional Anglicans who wanted to use the Book of Common Prayer.
  • Resettlement of Jewish People (1656): Cromwell allowed Jewish people to return and practice their faith in England, ending an official banishment that had lasted since 1290 (under King Edward I).

Key Takeaway: Puritan rule brought strict moral laws that outlawed traditional celebrations like Christmas and closed theatres, while offering religious freedom to many Protestant sects and Jewish people—but strictly banning Catholic worship.

4. The Big Historical Debate: Hero or Villain?

Historians and students still argue about Oliver Cromwell today. When writing an essay or completing an assessment, you need to show both sides of the argument!

Arguments that Cromwell was a "Hero" / Reformer:

  • Defended Parliament: He fought against the absolute power and tyranny of King Charles I.
  • Brilliant Military Leader: He built the professional and effective New Model Army.
  • Religious Toleration: He allowed various Protestant groups to worship freely and welcomed Jewish people back to England in 1656.
  • Refused the Crown: When offered the title of King in 1657, he turned it down.

Arguments that Cromwell was a "Villain" / Dictator:

  • Military Dictatorship: He shut down Parliament by force with armed soldiers in 1653 and ruled through Major-Generals.
  • Joyless Society: He imposed harsh laws that banned beloved cultural traditions like Christmas, theatre, and sports.
  • Atrocities in Ireland: He oversaw the brutal killings of soldiers and civilians at Drogheda and Wexford, followed by mass land confiscation and displacement.
  • Religious Intolerance to Catholics: He denied Catholics the right to practice their religion freely.

5. Pitfalls and Common Misconceptions (Avoid These Mistakes!)

Here are five common traps that students fall into when writing about the Interregnum:

  • Misconception 1: "Parliament ruled continuously during the Interregnum."
    Correction: Parliament was repeatedly purged and closed down. By 1653, Cromwell was ruling as Lord Protector, backed by the army and Major-Generals.
  • Misconception 2: "Oliver Cromwell crowned himself King."
    Correction: Cromwell was offered the crown in 1657 under the Humble Petition and Advice, but he formally rejected it. His title was Lord Protector.
  • Misconception 3: "There was total religious freedom for everyone."
    Correction: While many Protestant groups and Jewish people gained freedom, Roman Catholics and traditional Anglicans were strictly barred from practicing their faith openly.
  • Misconception 4: "Cromwell fought solely against Irish Catholics in Ireland."
    Correction: The opposition in Ireland was an alliance between Irish Catholic Confederates and English/Irish Protestant Royalists who supported Charles II. (For example, Sir Arthur Aston at Drogheda was an English Royalist).
  • Misconception 5: "The Interregnum ended the British monarchy forever."
    Correction: The republic lasted only 11 years (1649–1660). Following the confusion after Oliver Cromwell's death, Parliament invited Charles II to restore the monarchy in May 1660.

Quick Revision Checklist

Test yourself! Can you explain:

  1. What the word Interregnum means and the dates it covers (1649–1660)?
  2. The difference between the Commonwealth (1649–1653) and the Protectorate (1653–1659)?
  3. What happened at the Sieges of Drogheda and Wexford in 1649?
  4. What changes the Act for the Settlement of Ireland (1652) brought to Irish land ownership?
  5. Three everyday activities or festivals that were banned by the Puritans?
  6. Why historians disagree about whether Cromwell was a hero or a villain?