Introduction to Discourse Structure and Cohesion
Welcome to the study of Discourse! While other areas of language look at tiny details like single sounds or individual words, the study of discourse looks at the "big picture." If language were a building, grammar would be the bricks and lexis would be the mortar, but discourse is the architectural blueprint that shows how the whole building is laid out.
In this chapter, you will learn how writers and speakers organize their ideas so that they make sense to an audience. We will explore how texts are "stuck together" so they don't just feel like a random list of sentences. Understanding this is vital for your Unit 1 and Unit 2 exams, where you will need to analyze how a text’s structure helps it achieve its purpose.
What is Discourse?
In linguistics, discourse refers to any extended stretch of communication. This could be a long speech, a news article, a blog post, or even a conversation between friends. When we analyze discourse, we look at two main things:
- Structure: The order and shape of the text.
- Cohesion: The "linguistic glue" that links sentences and ideas together.
Quick Tip: Don’t worry if "discourse" sounds like a difficult word. Just think of it as "the way a whole text is put together."
1. Discourse Structure: The Skeleton of a Text
Every genre has a typical structure. A recipe looks different from a news report because they have different purposes. When you analyze a text, ask yourself: Why is this information in this specific order?
Common Patterns of Structure
Texts often follow predictable patterns to help the audience follow along:
- Problem-Solution: Common in advertisements or persuasive flyers. They identify a problem ("Tired of messy hair?") and then provide the solution ("Buy our new brush!").
- Chronological: Used in biographies or narratives. Events are told in the order they happened.
- Cause and Effect: Explains why something happened and what the result was.
- Question and Answer: Often found in interviews or FAQ sections of websites.
The Impact of Genre and Mode
The mode of a text (whether it is spoken, written, or a hybrid) changes its structure:
- Spoken Discourse: Often less structured. It might include "side-tracks" or interruptions. In your exam, you might see transcripts where the structure is shaped by two people taking turns to speak.
- Digital Discourse: Texts like blogs or forum posts often have a multimodal structure, using links and images to guide the reader rather than just paragraphs.
Did you know? The way a text starts and ends is a key part of discourse structure. A formal letter starts with a salutation ("Dear Sir/Madam") and ends with a valediction ("Yours faithfully"). If these are missing or changed, it tells you something about the relationship between the writer and the reader!
2. Cohesion: The Linguistic Glue
Cohesion is how a text is held together at a sentence level. Without cohesion, a text would feel jumpy and confusing. There are two main types: Grammatical Cohesion and Lexical Cohesion.
Grammatical Cohesion
This uses grammar to link parts of the text together. Common methods include:
- References (Anaphoric and Cataphoric): This usually involves using pronouns.
Anaphoric reference: Looking back to something already mentioned. ("The dog was hungry. It ate the food.")
Cataphoric reference: Looking forward to something about to be mentioned to create suspense. ("He was the best runner in the world. Usain Bolt stepped onto the track.") - Conjunctions: Words like "however," "therefore," "because," and "and" act as signposts, telling the reader how ideas relate to each other.
- Substitution and Ellipsis: Avoiding repetition by replacing words or leaving them out because the meaning is already clear. ("I want the blue shirt, not the red one." — 'One' substitutes 'shirt'.)
Lexical Cohesion
This uses word choices to create a sense of unity. (Note: You can cross-reference this with the "Lexis and Semantics" chapter.)
- Repetition: Repeating key words to keep the audience focused on a theme.
- Semantic Fields: Using groups of words related to the same topic (e.g., using "goal," "pitch," "referee," and "match" in a sports report).
Key Takeaway: Cohesion ensures that the mode and purpose of the text remain consistent throughout.
3. Advanced Discourse Concepts
For the higher marks in Unit 1 and Unit 2, you should look out for these two "Inter-" terms mentioned in the syllabus:
Intertextuality
This is when a text refers to, or "borrows" from, another well-known text. For example, an advert might use the phrase "To be or not to be" from Shakespeare. This creates a shared perspective with the audience because the writer assumes the reader will recognize the reference.
Interdiscursivity
This is when a text mixes different genres or styles (discourses).
Example: A serious charity advertisement that uses the "language of a fairy tale" ("Once upon a time, there was a girl with no water..."). Mixing these styles helps the text achieve its purpose of grabbing attention or creating emotion.
Summary Checklist for Analysis
When you are given a text in the exam, use this step-by-step guide to analyze its discourse:
- Identify the Genre: Is it a blog? An interview? A speech?
- Look for the "Skeleton": How is it ordered? Is there a clear introduction, development, and conclusion?
- Find the "Glue": How are the sentences linked? Look for pronouns (referencing) and conjunctions.
- Check for Transitions: How does the text move from one topic to the next? (e.g., "Moving on to our next point...").
- Consider the Context: How do audience, purpose, genre, and mode shape the way the text is organized?
Quick Review:
- Discourse structure is the overall organization of a text.
- Cohesion is the internal linking within the text.
- Intertextuality is referring to other texts.
- Interdiscursivity is mixing different styles of language.
Don't worry if this seems tricky at first! Discourse is all about looking at the "flow" of language. The more you practice looking at full texts rather than just single words, the easier it will become to spot these patterns.