Option B: Conservatism — CCEA A2 2 Political Ideas
Welcome to your comprehensive study guide for Option B: Conservatism in CCEA A2 2 Government and Politics. Whether political theory comes naturally to you or feels a bit overwhelming at first, do not worry! This guide breaks down every key concept, set text, and debate into clear, manageable steps so you can approach your exam with total confidence.
Quick Exam Snapshot:
• Unit: A2 2 (Political Power or Political Ideas).
• Assessment: 1 hour 30-minute written examination (worth 25% of your total A Level / 60% of A2).
• Structure: Source-based questions and extended essay choices.
• Key Set Text: Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790).
1. The Core Concepts of Conservatism
Conservatism is not based on abstract blueprints or utopian dreams of building a perfect world. Instead, it is a political philosophy built on practical experience, historical wisdom, and a realistic (often cautious) view of human nature.
A. Human Imperfection
At the very heart of conservatism is the idea that human beings are fundamentally flawed. Conservatives believe that because humans are imperfect, society can never be made perfect. This imperfection shows up in three distinct ways:
• Psychological Imperfection: Humans crave security, safety, and order. We fear chaos and the unknown, preferring familiar rules and traditions over uncertainty.
• Moral Imperfection: Humans are naturally selfish and driven by desires that can lead to anti-social behaviour. Without strict laws and clear boundaries, society would collapse into disorder.
• Intellectual Imperfection: The world is vastly complex, and human brainpower is limited. Conservatives argue that individuals cannot fully comprehend how society works through sheer logic alone, which is why abstract ideologies often fail catastrophically.
The Conservative Solution: Because human nature is flawed, we need a strong state to maintain law, order, and social discipline. Without authority, freedom descends into chaos.
B. Organic Society (Organicism)
How do conservatives view society? While some ideologies see society as a collection of separate individuals who can rebuild the system from scratch, conservatives view society as a living organism (like the human body or a centuries-old tree).
• Interdependence: Just like the heart, lungs, and brain rely on one another, different parts of society (families, local communities, schools, government) depend on each other to stay healthy.
• Fragility: You cannot suddenly cut off an organism's limbs or radically rearrange its vital organs without killing it. Similarly, radical changes can destroy social balance.
• Evolution over Revolution: Society grows naturally over centuries. It cannot be dismantled and reassembled according to an abstract mathematical blueprint.
C. Tradition and Pragmatism ("Change to Conserve")
Conservatives place immense value on tradition. Tradition represents the accumulated wisdom of past generations—practices, laws, and customs that have been tested by time and survived because they work.
• Pragmatism: Rather than acting on theoretical ideas, governments should act on what is practical, tested, and workable.
• Change to Conserve: Conservatives are not opposed to all change. They understand that a society that cannot adapt cannot survive. However, change must be cautious, gradual, and incremental. You reform a small part of a system in order to preserve the stability of the whole.
D. Authority and Hierarchy
Conservatives argue that hierarchy and authority are natural and inevitable in human life:
• Natural Inequality: People naturally possess different talents, skills, and capacities. Trying to enforce absolute equality is unnatural and requires dangerous state tyranny.
• Top-Down Order: Authority provides guidance, stability, and reassurance. It flows naturally from top to bottom (parents over children, teachers over pupils, governments over citizens).
• Social Duty: Those at the top of the hierarchy hold a moral responsibility to look after those who are less fortunate (a principle known as noblesse oblige or paternalism).
E. Property
Private property holds a deeply revered place in conservative thought for several reasons:
• Security and Independence: Owning property gives individuals a safety net and independence from the state.
• A Stake in Society: When citizens own homes or land, they have an economic and social interest in maintaining law, order, and stability. Property owners respect the property of others.
• Moral Character: Managing property teaches individuals responsibility, thrift, planning, and respect for the law.
Section 1 Quick Review:
Remember the 5 Core Pillars: Human Imperfection, Organic Society, Tradition, Authority/Hierarchy, and Property.
2. The Prescribed Set Text: Edmund Burke
For CCEA Option B, the central thinker you must master is Edmund Burke and his foundational work, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790). Burke is widely regarded as the father of modern Anglo-American conservatism.
A. Historical Context & Anti-Jacobinism
In 1789, the French Revolution erupted. The revolutionaries (the Jacobins) tore down the French monarchy, aristocracy, and church, attempting to reconstruct France from scratch based on abstract notions of "liberty, equality, fraternity" and the "rights of man."
Burke forcefully rejected this in his 1790 text. He argued that:
• Abstract Rights are Dangerous: Rights do not exist as theoretical philosophies in the clouds; they are practical customs and liberties inherited through history and law.
• Mathematical Logic Fails in Politics: Human society is too complex and emotional to be managed by pure intellectual theory or rigid geometry.
• Catastrophic Consequences: Burke accurately predicted that destroying France's traditional institutions would eliminate social restraint, leading to violence, terror, and military dictatorship.
B. The "Little Platoons"
Burke described society’s small, local communities as our "little platoons". These include families, local neighbourhoods, voluntary groups, and churches.
• First Link in the Chain: Burke wrote that affection begins in our immediate circle: "To be attached to the subdivision, to love the little platoon we belong to in society, is the first principle (the germ as it were) of public affections."
• Shield Against Tyranny: These intermediate institutions sit between the individual and the central state, nurturing social bonds and preventing the government from having total control over isolated citizens.
C. The Contract of Generations
Burke rejected the idea that society is just a simple business deal or voluntary contract made by the people currently living. Instead, he defined society as a sacred partnership:
• The Three-Part Partnership: Burke stated that society is a contract between "those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born."
• Custodianship: The present generation does not own the country outright. We are merely temporary custodians or trustees. We have a duty to honour the heritage of our ancestors and preserve it intact for future generations.
D. Prescription
Burke advanced the idea of prescription—the principle that long-standing institutions, customs, and laws carry authority simply because they have stood the test of time.
• Proven Wisdom: If an institution (such as a legal system or parliament) has worked well across many generations, it has proven its utility and value far better than any brand-new idea thought up overnight.
• Pragmatic Reform: Burke famously argued that "a state without the means of some change is without the means of its conservation." You reform specific abuses to keep the overall structure sound.
Key Takeaway on Burke:
Burke opposed the French Revolution not because he hated reform, but because he believed radical, abstract upheaval destroys the organic social fabric. He championed incremental change, historical inheritance, prescription, and the vital role of "little platoons."
3. Internal Divisions in Conservatism
Conservatism is not a single, uniform ideology. Over time, it has evolved into three distinct branches that you must be able to compare and contrast for your CCEA exam.
A. Traditional Conservatism
• Roots: Directly based on Edmund Burke's principles.
• Core Focus: Maintaining social order, defending hierarchy, preserving organic institutions, and implementing gradual, pragmatic reform when necessary.
• View of the State: Sees the state as a natural organic authority necessary to maintain law, order, and moral discipline.
B. One Nation Conservatism
• Key Figure: Benjamin Disraeli (19th-century British Prime Minister).
• The "Two Nations" Problem: During the Industrial Revolution, Disraeli warned that Britain was splitting into "two nations"—the Rich and the Poor—divided by wealth, opportunity, and privilege, with no sympathy between them.
• Paternalism & Social Reform: Disraeli argued that if the ruling elite ignored the working class, Britain faced the real threat of a socialist revolution. To avoid this, the elite must practice paternalism (fatherly care) and pass social reforms (such as public health and housing acts).
• Outcome: By helping the poor and uniting the country under the Crown, Church, and Empire, Disraeli preserved the traditional hierarchy and strengthened national unity.
C. The New Right (Thatcherism / Reaganism)
Emerging strongly in the late 1970s and 1980s, the New Right represents a major shift within conservative thought. It is vital to understand that the New Right is a marriage of two distinct, sometimes conflicting strands:
1. Neo-Liberalism (Economic Strand):
• Key Ideas: Free-market capitalism, deregulation, privatisation of state industries, low taxation, and rolling back state intervention.
• View of the Individual: Promotes atomistic individualism, self-reliance, and personal responsibility (rejecting dependency on the welfare state).
2. Neo-Conservatism (Social & Moral Strand):
• Key Ideas: A strong state focused on strict law and order, traditional family values, national patriotism, and a firm foreign policy.
• View of Society: Fears moral decay, permissiveness, and social fragmentation. Demands state authority to protect traditional social morality.
The Internal Tension of the New Right:
Notice the built-in tension: Neo-liberals want to shrink state power in the economy to maximize individual freedom, while Neo-conservatives want to expand state power in law enforcement, defense, and social discipline to maintain order.
4. Comparing the Branches
To help you structure exam comparisons, here is how the branches approach key themes:
• On Society:
Traditional & One Nation: View society as an interdependent, organic whole with mutual obligations.
The New Right (Neo-liberal): Views society more individualistically, emphasizing individual effort and market outcomes.
• On the Economy and Welfare:
One Nation: Supports state intervention and social welfare to protect the vulnerable and maintain social peace.
The New Right: Rejects high welfare spending and economic regulation, arguing they stifle enterprise and create dependency.
• On the State:
Traditional: Sees the state as an organic guardian of order and stability.
New Right: Wants a "minimal state" in economic affairs, combined with an authoritative "strong state" for law, order, and national security.
5. Common Exam Pitfalls & CCEA Success Tips
Avoid these frequent mistakes to maximize your marks in Unit A2 2:
1. The Jurisdiction Trap:
Do not base your essays around thinkers from other exam boards (such as Ayn Rand or Robert Nozick) at the expense of your required curriculum. For CCEA Option B, keep your primary theoretical focus firmly rooted in Edmund Burke and his set text.
2. Misunderstanding "Reactionary":
Do not claim that all conservatives want to "turn back the clock" to a past era. Conservatism is generally not reactionary; it is pragmatic. Use Burke’s concept of "change to conserve" to explain how conservatives accept gradual change to preserve core stability.
3. Treating the New Right as a Monolith:
Never describe the New Right as a single, simple idea. Top-band answers clearly highlight the dual nature and internal tension between Neo-liberal economics (free markets, small state) and Neo-conservative social policy (strong state, social authority).
4. Engaging with the Exam Source:
In the A2 2 examination, source-based questions require you to directly quote, interpret, and evaluate the provided extract. Blend your knowledge of Burke, Disraeli, and the New Right directly with the arguments raised in the exam passage.
Final Checklist: Are You Exam Ready?
Before sitting your exam, check that you can confidently:
• Explain human imperfection (psychological, moral, intellectual) and why it leads to a need for authority.
• Define an organic society and explain why conservatives prefer gradual reform over revolution.
• Discuss Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), including Anti-Jacobinism, the "Little Platoons", the Contract of Generations, and Prescription.
• Contrast One Nation paternalism (Disraeli) with the New Right's free-market approach.
• Explain the balance and tension within the New Right between Neo-liberalism and Neo-conservatism.