Welcome to "Other Aspects of Human Experience"
Hello and welcome to your ultimate revision guide for the synoptic component of CCEA AS Level Religious Studies (Unit AS 7: Foundations of Ethics with Special Reference to Issues in Medical Ethics).
Don't worry if Section B feels intimidating at first! The term "Other aspects of human experience" simply means looking at how the ethical theories and medical dilemmas you have studied connect to the wider world—especially through modern, secular viewpoints that challenge traditional religious thought.
In this section, you are expected to compare traditional religious ethics with secular viewpoints, specifically focusing on the set thinker Peter Singer and his influential work Practical Ethics (1979).
1. Quick Refresh: The Ethical Foundations
Before diving into modern human experience, let's briefly recap the core ethical tools you have in your toolkit. Examiners love to see you contrasting these with modern secular thought!
A. Christian & Deontological Ethics (Rules and Duties)
1. Scriptural Basis: Christian ethics is rooted in scripture, notably the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments) and Jesus's Sermon on the Mount. These provide direct, absolute moral guidance.
2. Natural Moral Law (Thomas Aquinas): A deontological (duty-based) approach. Aquinas argued that God created an ordered universe with built-in purposes. Morality is discovered through reason and structured around Primary Precepts (such as the preservation of life and reproduction) and Secondary Precepts (the practical rules derived from them, e.g., "do not abort").
B. Teleological & Relativist Ethics (Outcomes and Context)
1. Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill): A consequentialist/teleological approach. Actions are judged by their results. Bentham proposed the Hedonic Calculus to measure pleasure and pain, seeking the "Greatest Good for the Greatest Number."
2. Situation Ethics (Joseph Fletcher): A middle way between legalism (strict rules) and antinomianism (no rules). Fletcher argued that agape (selfless Christian love) is the only moral absolute. Rules can be broken if love is best served in that specific situation.
C. Applied Medical Ethics Contexts
You apply these ethical frameworks to three main medical issues:
Human Infertility: Treatments like IVF (In Vitro Fertilisation) and AIH / AID (Artificial Insemination by Husband / Donor).
Surrogacy: The moral status of surrogacy contracts and the rights of intended parents, surrogate mothers, and children.
Embryo Research: The moral status of the early human embryo and whether it is right to experiment on or discard "spare" embryos.
Key Takeaway for Foundations: Traditional religious approaches (like Natural Law) focus on the absolute sanctity and preservation of human life, whereas teleological theories focus on consequences and outcomes.
2. The Set Thinker: Peter Singer and Practical Ethics (1979)
To evaluate "Other aspects of human experience," CCEA requires you to engage directly with the philosopher Peter Singer.
A. Singer’s View of Morality: A "God-less Age"
Peter Singer rejects religious morality. He argues that we live in a "god-less age" where ethical systems based on divine authority or ancient scripture (such as the Decalogue) are outdated and no longer fit for purpose. Instead of obeying fixed commandments, Singer believes human ethics must be grounded in reason, equality, and the practical realities of modern life.
B. Preference Utilitarianism
Singer is a Preference Utilitarian. Unlike Bentham (who measured physical pleasure and pain), Singer argues that we should aim to maximise the satisfaction of the preferences (wants, desires, life plans) of conscious beings.
Everyday Analogy: Imagine ordering dinner for a group of friends. Classical Utilitarianism tries to make everyone feel maximum physical pleasure. Preference Utilitarianism asks: "What does each individual actually prefer to eat?" and aims to satisfy as many individual preferences as possible.
C. The Critical Distinction: "Human Being" vs. "Person"
This is the most important concept in Singer’s philosophy for your exam! Singer separates biological classification from moral value:
1. Biological Human Being: A member of the species Homo sapiens. Simply having human DNA does not, in Singer's view, give a creature an automatic right to life.
2. A "Person": A being that possesses qualities such as rationality, self-awareness, and the capacity to conceive of a future and have preferences.
The Moral Threshold: For Singer, only "persons" have a serious right to life because only they can have a preference for continued existence. An early embryo, a fetus, or a newborn baby does not possess self-awareness or rationality; therefore, they do not qualify as "persons" in Singer’s philosophical definition.
D. The Critique of "Speciesism"
Singer coined the term Speciesism to describe what he sees as a prejudice or bias in favour of the interests of members of one's own species against those of members of other species.
He argues that favouring humans simply because they are human is morally equivalent to racism or sexism. If an adult chimpanzee has higher levels of rationality and self-awareness than a human embryo, Singer argues it is speciesist to grant the embryo greater moral protection than the chimpanzee.
Did You Know? Singer argues that sentience (the ability to feel pain and pleasure) is the boundary for moral consideration, but personhood (rationality/self-awareness) is the boundary for the right to life.
Key Takeaway for Singer: Singer replaces the traditional "Sanctity of Life" with a "Quality of Life" approach rooted in Preference Utilitarianism, personhood, and an explicit rejection of speciesism.
3. Comparing Singer with Religious & Deontological Ethics
In Section B questions, you will need to set Singer’s ideas against traditional ethical frameworks across medical issues like embryo research, infertility treatments, and surrogacy.
Embryo Research & Infertility Treatments (IVF, AIH/AID)
Aquinas / Natural Moral Law:
Rejects embryo destruction because it violates the Primary Precept to preserve life. Life begins at conception, giving the embryo full moral status. Practices that separate sex from procreation (e.g., AID or standard IVF) undermine the natural purpose of reproduction.
Peter Singer / Preference Utilitarianism:
Supports embryo research and fertility treatments. The early embryo is biologically human but not a "person" (it lacks rationality, consciousness, and preferences). The preference of infertile couples to have children and the potential of medical research to cure debilitating diseases vastly outweigh any moral status assigned to an early embryo.
Summary Comparison Table
Traditional Christian / Natural Law View:
• Based on God’s commandments and universal reason.
• Holds to the Sanctity of Life (all human life is sacred from conception).
• Rigid absolute rules (Primary Precepts).
Peter Singer’s Secular View:
• Based on rationality in a "god-less age".
• Holds to the Quality of Life and personhood criteria.
• Flexible outcomes aimed at satisfying individual preferences.
4. Common Pitfalls & Examiner Warnings
Examiners highlight several common traps in Section B. Keep these in mind to secure top marks:
1. Writing a "Standard Peter Singer" Essay:
The Mistake: Memorising everything about Singer and writing a generic biography.
The Fix: Directly answer the specific prompt in the question! If the question asks about the status of the unborn or embryo research, focus your knowledge of Singer and personhood specifically on that dilemma.
2. Generic "Human Experience" Examples:
The Mistake: Giving vague, modern examples (like news stories or general thoughts) without linking them to ethical theories or philosophical concepts.
The Fix: Always anchor your discussion in ethical concepts (e.g., Preference Utilitarianism, Natural Moral Law, personhood thresholds, speciesism).
3. Confusing Deontology and Teleology:
The Mistake: Claiming Natural Law looks at the best outcome, or that Utilitarianism is based on fixed moral duties.
The Fix: Remember: Deontology = Duty / Rules (Natural Law, Decalogue). Teleology = Consequences / Ends (Utilitarianism, Situation Ethics).
4. Misunderstanding the "Personhood" Threshold:
The Mistake: Stating that Singer believes human beings have no value at all.
The Fix: Clearly state that Singer values persons (those with rationality and self-awareness) and sentience (capacity to feel pain), but rejects the idea that biological human membership alone gives an automatic right to life.
5. Memory Aids & Quick Revision Checklist
Mnemonic for Peter Singer's Core Ideas: P - E - R - S
P – Preference Utilitarianism (satisfying desires/interests).
E – Equality across species (rejection of speciesism).
R – Rejection of religious morality (life in a "god-less age").
S – Self-awareness defines a person (the personhood threshold).
Quick Review Checklist
Can you confidently explain:
• The difference between a biological "human being" and a "person" according to Peter Singer?
• Why Singer rejects the Decalogue and traditional religious morality?
• What Singer means by "speciesism" and how it links to racism or sexism?
• How Natural Moral Law and Preference Utilitarianism reach opposite conclusions on embryo research and fertility treatments?
• How to link these concepts directly to the Section B exam question rather than writing a generic pre-prepared essay?