AS & A Level Psychology (9990) Study Notes: Social Approach

Core Study: Perry, Mankuta & Shamay-Tsoory (2015) - Personal Space

Welcome! This study by Perry et al. is fascinating because it connects your inner biology (hormones) with how you interact socially (how close you let people stand to you). If you've ever felt uncomfortable when someone stands too near, you're experiencing personal space, and this study tries to understand what controls that "invisible bubble"!


This research falls under the Social Approach, which assumes that our behaviour is heavily influenced by the social context, environment, and the presence of others (even implied or imagined presence).

1. The Psychology Being Investigated

Perry et al. focused on three interconnected psychological concepts:

  1. Interpersonal Distance (Personal Space): This is the physical space or ‘buffer zone’ individuals maintain between themselves and others. It is often non-verbal communication, conveying comfort or discomfort.
  2. Social Hormones (Oxytocin): Oxytocin is sometimes called the "love hormone" or "bonding hormone." It is a chemical messenger in the brain linked to social attachment, trust, and affiliation.
  3. Empathy: The ability to understand or share the feelings of another person. The researchers investigated if the effect of oxytocin depended on a person's level of empathy.
Quick Review Box: The Core Question

The study essentially asks: Does the "social hormone" oxytocin make people want to stand closer to others, and does this effect depend on how empathetic they already are?

2. Background to the Study

Historically, personal space has been studied as a purely social phenomenon. However, researchers started looking into biological factors. Previous studies had already shown that oxytocin plays a role in promoting social behaviour and reducing social anxiety.

Perry and colleagues hypothesised that oxytocin would decrease the comfortable distance people keep from others, but importantly, they predicted this effect would be strongest in people who were already highly empathetic.

3. Aims and Hypotheses

Aims of Perry et al. (2015)

The main aim was to investigate the effect of the hormone oxytocin on an individual's perception of personal space (interpersonal distance), and to see if this effect was moderated by the individual difference of empathy.

(Note: The syllabus does not explicitly require hypotheses for this study, but we can infer the directional hypothesis based on the results and aim.)

Inferred Directional Hypothesis: Participants administered with oxytocin would exhibit a smaller comfortable interpersonal distance compared to the placebo condition, particularly amongst those scoring high in empathy.

4. Procedure and Methodology

Perry et al. conducted two separate laboratory experiments using a mixed design. The drug administration was a repeated measures (within-subjects) design (participants completed both the oxytocin and placebo conditions in a double-blind crossover procedure), while empathy (high vs. low) served as a between-subjects factor.

4.1 Participants and Variables

  • Sample: Healthy volunteers participating in laboratory sessions separated by a washout period between substance administrations.
  • Sampling Technique: Volunteer / Opportunity Sampling.
Key Variables:
  • Independent Variable (IV): The substance administered: Oxytocin nasal spray vs. Placebo nasal spray (saline solution), tested within participants.
  • Moderator Variable: The participant’s trait level of empathy (measured using a standardised questionnaire such as the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), categorised into high and low empathy).
  • Dependent Variable (DV): The participant’s comfortable interpersonal distance (personal space), measured across the two experiments.

4.2 Experiment 1: Measuring Physical Distance (Computerised Task)

  1. Administration: Participants were administered either oxytocin or placebo nasal spray in a double-blind, counterbalanced order across sessions.
  2. Empathy Measurement: Trait empathy was assessed using an empathy questionnaire (e.g. the IRI) to establish high vs. low empathy groups.
  3. CIDS Task: Researchers used the Computerised Interpersonal Distance Scale (CIDS).
  4. The Task: Participants viewed a virtual human figure/avatar approaching on a screen and were instructed to stop it when they felt the distance was comfortable for social interaction. This distance was recorded as the DV.

Did you know? Using a computerised task like CIDS allows for very precise, quantitative data measurement, which increases the objectivity of the results.

4.3 Experiment 2: Measuring Room Choice (Validation)

This second experiment was conducted to validate spatial preferences in an implicit setting involving room arrangements.

  1. Administration and Empathy: The double-blind administration of oxytocin vs. placebo and empathy assessment remained consistent with Experiment 1.
  2. The Task: Participants were shown diagrams/pictures of rooms with pairs of chairs placed at varying distances from each other.
  3. DV Measurement: Participants chose which room setup they would prefer for a conversation, indicating their preferred interpersonal distance.

5. Results and Conclusions

5.1 Main Findings (Quantitative)

The results showed a clear interaction effect between oxytocin administration and empathy level:

  • High Empathy Group: In participants who scored high on empathy, administration of oxytocin significantly decreased preferred interpersonal distance (closer personal space) compared to the placebo condition.
  • Low Empathy Group: For participants who scored low on empathy, oxytocin did not decrease interpersonal distance (having no significant positive effect on proximity).

This demonstrates that the prosocial effect of the hormone on interpersonal distance depends on baseline trait empathy.

5.2 Conclusion

Perry et al. concluded that oxytocin regulates interpersonal distance by promoting closer social proximity, but this effect is moderated by individual differences in empathy.

The study highlights that personal space is governed by an interaction between neurochemical mechanisms (oxytocin) and individual psychological traits (empathy).

Key Takeaway

The main finding is the interaction: Oxytocin + High Empathy = Closer Personal Space.

6. Evaluation: Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths of Perry et al.

  • High Control (Lab Experiment): The study was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting using a double-blind procedure and counterbalancing, which controls for participant variables and demand characteristics, thereby increasing internal validity.
  • Objective Measurement: Using the CIDS computerised scale provided objective, quantitative data for interpersonal distance, minimising researcher bias.
  • Replicability: Due to the standardised administration and computerised protocols, the study is easily replicable to test for reliability.
  • Practical Application: Understanding the interaction between oxytocin and empathy provides insight into therapeutic approaches for conditions involving social interaction impairments.

Weaknesses of Perry et al.

  • Low Ecological Validity: Both experiments relied on laboratory simulations (a virtual avatar on a screen in Exp 1 and 2D room pictures in Exp 2), which may not fully reflect spontaneous personal space dynamics in real-life face-to-face encounters.
  • Ethical Considerations: Using a double-blind placebo design involves necessary deception regarding which substance is administered in a given trial, affecting fully informed consent prior to debriefing.
  • Sample Generalisability: The sample consisted of healthy adult volunteers; findings may not generalise across different age groups or diverse cultural backgrounds with distinct spatial norms.
  • Reductionism: Explaining spatial preferences primarily through oxytocin and trait empathy may overlook broader situational, environmental, and cultural factors.

7. Issues and Debates

This study is excellent for discussing how different levels of explanation interact:

Individual and Situational Explanations

This study strongly supports an interactionist view:

  • Situational: The presence and administration of oxytocin (an external biochemical factor/stimulus) alters behaviour.
  • Individual: This effect is contingent on the individual's baseline trait empathy. Therefore, interpersonal distance is shaped by an interaction between individual traits and biological/situational factors.

Nature versus Nurture

This study integrates biological and psychological components:

  • Nature (Biological): The direct physiological action of oxytocin demonstrates the role of innate neurochemistry in social behaviour.
  • Nurture (Cognitive/Social): Trait empathy, shaped by socialisation, learning, and experience, moderates how the individual responds to oxytocin.

Application to Everyday Life

  • The findings suggest that biological treatments (like oxytocin administration) alone may not enhance social bonding unless combined with psychological interventions that foster empathy and social understanding.

Don't worry if this seems tricky at first! Remember the core idea: Your invisible bubble (personal space) is controlled partly by your biology (oxytocin) but only if you already have a social outlook (empathy). It's a team effort!