Welcome to Grammar and Morphology!
Ever wondered why a writer chose a short, punchy sentence instead of a long, flowing one? Or why a poet added a specific prefix to a word to make it sound "wrong" or "new"? That is exactly what we explore in Grammar and Morphology. In the OCR A Level English Language and Literature (EMC) course, these aren't just "rules" to follow—they are tools in a toolkit that writers use to shape meaning, influence our emotions, and build worlds.
This chapter is part of your Language levels and stylistics toolkit. Think of grammar as the "skeleton" of a text; it provides the structure that holds everything else together. By the end of these notes, you will be able to take a sentence apart and see exactly how it works!
1. Morphology: The Building Blocks of Words
Morphology is the study of how words are formed. Before we look at whole sentences, we need to look at the smallest units of meaning, called morphemes.
Free Morphemes: These are "independent" units that can stand alone as words.
Example: "Walk", "Happy", "Book".
Bound Morphemes: These cannot stand alone. They must be attached to a free morpheme. We usually call these affixes (prefixes and suffixes).
Example: The "un-" in "unhappy" or the "-ing" in "walking".
Why does this matter for your exam?
In Component 01 (Non-fiction) or Component 02 (Poetry/Plays), look for how authors create new words (neologisms) or use specific endings. For example, a writer might use lots of "-ly" adverbs to create a sense of frantic action, or use the "un-" prefix to suggest a sense of loss or reversal.
Key distinction: Inflectional vs. Derivational
Inflectional morphology: Adding a suffix to change the grammar but not the core meaning (e.g., adding "-s" to make "cat" plural).
Derivational morphology: Adding a prefix or suffix to create a new word or change its category (e.g., changing the verb "teach" into the noun "teacher").
2. Word Classes: The Parts of Speech
To hit those AO1 marks, you need to identify word classes accurately. We split these into two groups: Open and Closed.
Open Classes (The "Content" Words)
These are "open" because we constantly invent new ones (like "to ghost" or "selfie").
Nouns: People, places, things, or ideas (Proper, Common, Concrete, Abstract).
Verbs: Actions or states of being (Dynamic verbs like "run" vs. Stative verbs like "believe").
Adjectives: Describe nouns (Evaluative, Descriptive, Comparative, Superlative).
Adverbs: Describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (often ending in -ly).
Closed Classes (The "Grammar" Words)
These stay the same over time and act as the "glue" for sentences.
Pronouns: Replace nouns (I, you, he, she, they).
Determiners: Come before a noun to show quantity or possession (the, a, my, those).
Prepositions: Show relationships in space or time (in, on, under, during).
Conjunctions: Link words or clauses (and, but, because).
Top Tip: Don't just label them! If you notice a text has an unusually high density of abstract nouns (like "freedom", "justice", "sorrow"), ask yourself: Why? Is the writer trying to sound philosophical or detached? That is AO2 in action.
3. Syntax: Building Sentences
Syntax is the study of how words are ordered into phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Phrases and Clauses
A phrase is a group of words that works together but doesn't have a subject and a verb (e.g., "The big red bus").
A clause contains a subject and a verb.
Main Clause: Can stand alone as a sentence.
Subordinate Clause: Depends on a main clause to make sense (e.g., "Because it was raining, we stayed inside").
Sentence Types (Function)
Identify these to understand the purpose of a text:
Declarative: Making a statement (e.g., "The sun is hot"). Used for facts or narration.
Imperative: Giving a command (e.g., "Stop!"). Often found in persuasive speeches or instructions.
Interrogative: Asking a question. Used to engage the audience or show a character's confusion.
Exclamative: Expressing strong emotion (e.g., "How wonderful!").
Sentence Structures (Form)
Simple: One main clause. (Clear, direct, or blunt).
Compound: Two main clauses joined by "and", "but", or "or". (Balances two ideas equally).
Complex: One main clause and at least one subordinate clause. (Used for elaborate detail or showing cause and effect).
Compound-Complex: At least two main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. (Often used in sophisticated, formal writing).
4. Grammar and Stylistics: Shaping Meaning (AO2)
In your exam, you need to link these grammatical choices to the context (AO3) and the meanings (AO2) being shaped. Here are three powerful "grammar moves" to look for:
Active vs. Passive Voice
Active Voice: "The politician broke the promise." (Focuses on who is responsible).
Passive Voice: "The promise was broken." (Hides the "doer" of the action, often used to avoid blame or sound more formal/objective).
Tense and Aspect
Is the text in the past tense (creating a sense of memory or history) or present tense (creating a sense of immediacy and excitement)?
Look for the progressive aspect ("I am running") which suggests ongoing, unfinished action, vs. the perfective aspect ("I have run") which suggests completion.
Noun Phrases
Writers often "load" noun phrases with multiple adjectives (pre-modification) to create a vivid picture.
Example: "The cold, ancient, unforgiving mountains."
The complexity of the grammar here reflects the complexity of the landscape.
Quick Review: Putting it Together
When you are analysing a text (like an unseen non-fiction piece in Component 01 or a poem by Carol Ann Duffy or William Blake in Component 02), follow these steps:
1. Identify: Find a specific grammatical feature (e.g., an imperative sentence or a derivational suffix).
2. Terminology: Use the correct name (AO1).
3. Purpose: Why is it there? Does it match the audience or mode? (AO3).
4. Effect: How does it make the reader feel or what does it highlight? (AO2).
Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't just say "the writer uses sentences." Every writer uses sentences! Instead, say "the writer uses simple, declarative sentences to create a sense of stark honesty."
Note: For more on how these patterns are broken for effect, see the chapter on "Foregrounding: repetition, pattern-making, pattern-breaking and deviation".