Changes in the International Order, Mass Society and Us

Chapter 3: Changes in the International Order, Massification, and Ourselves

Hello everyone, and welcome to your History Inquiry study session!
This chapter covers the tumultuous period from roughly the 1910s to the mid-1940s—from the outbreak of World War I to the end of World War II. You might feel a bit overwhelmed thinking, "There are so many events to memorize...", but don't worry!
The core keywords that sum up this era in a nutshell are "massification" (rise of the masses) and "upheaval and restructuring of the international order." Ordinary people (the masses) stepped onto center stage in politics and society, and through global total wars and economic crises, the modern world order was forged. If you follow the storyline of cause and effect, you'll find that everything connects together surprisingly clearly!

1. World War I and Social Transformation

World War I was fundamentally different from previous conflicts; it became a "total war." It wasn't just fought by soldiers on the front lines—it mobilized every resource a nation possessed: civilians on the home front, industrial factories, scientific technology, and women in the labor force.

① Spread of Socialist Thought and the Formation of the USSR
As the war dragged on and exhausted the nations involved, a momentous event erupted: the Russian Revolution. This led to the birth of the world's first socialist state, the Soviet Union (USSR).
Socialist ideas spread rapidly among workers and intellectuals worldwide who were suffering under the contradictions of capitalism and the devastation of war, as well as among colonized peoples struggling against imperial rule. This introduced a new ideological axis of global conflict: "Capitalism vs. Socialism."

② Progress of Democracy and Mass Political Participation
To sustain a total war, the full cooperation of an entire population was indispensable. As a result, the political voice of the workers and women who supported the war effort grew significantly.
Public opinion gained unprecedented influence across the world, and a major democratic tide surged forward, including the introduction of universal suffrage. In Japan, too, the democratic movement known as "Taisho Democracy" flourished, leading to the establishment of party cabinets and the achievement of universal male suffrage.

[Key Takeaway]
Through the experience of "total war," politics shifted from being the exclusive preserve of a privileged elite into an era where the government could no longer ignore "public opinion" and the "masses." This marked the monumental first step toward massification.

[Common Pitfall]
The universal suffrage achieved in Japan during the Taisho Democracy era did not apply to "all citizens"; it was granted only to "all males aged 25 and older" (enacted in 1925, alongside the Peace Preservation Law). Women's suffrage was not realized until after World War II. If you see an option on a source-analysis question claiming "universal suffrage for both men and women" in 1925, that is incorrect—keep this distinction sharp!

2. The Formation of Mass Society and Mass Culture

After World War I, a lifestyle centered on mass production and mass consumption spread widely, driven primarily by the United States. With the proliferation of automobiles, home appliances, radio broadcasting, skyrocketing newspaper circulations, and the boom of motion pictures, an urban-centered mass society blossomed where ordinary citizens could access the same information and enjoy similar everyday lifestyles.

In Japan's major cities, salaried company workers (sararīman) and working women (shokugyō fujin) appeared, leading to the rapid diffusion of Westernized lifestyle habits and popular mass culture.
However, this "mass society" was not entirely positive. With the rise of mass media like newspapers and radio, a new structural danger emerged: feverish public opinion could rapidly sway national politics and drive foreign policy.

[Did You Know?]
Just as we use smartphones and social media to share the latest trends today, people in the 1920s tuned into radio broadcasts and read daily newspapers, experiencing the exact same hit songs and breaking news simultaneously nationwide. The modern relationship between mass information media and everyday citizens was truly founded in this era!

3. Economic Crisis (The Great Depression) and the Road to World War II

Just when people thought this era of prosperity would last forever, a sudden economic shockwave struck. In 1929, the Wall Street stock market crash in New York triggered the Great Depression (global economic crisis).

① National Responses and the Fragmentation of the International Order
Confronted with a worldwide economic collapse, nations took very different paths:
- Countries with extensive colonies and spheres of influence (such as Britain and France) formed protected "bloc economies," prioritizing trade within their empires while shutting out foreign imports with high tariffs.
- The United States, possessing a vast domestic market and abundant resources, adopted policies where the federal government intervened aggressively in the economy (the New Deal).
- The Soviet Union, operating under an isolated socialist planned economy, remained largely insulated from the Depression and pushed forward rapid heavy industrialization.
- In stark contrast, nations lacking extensive colonial territories and markets (such as Germany, Italy, and Japan) suffered catastrophic economic blows and increasingly sought to resolve their domestic crises through territorial expansion abroad.

② Shifts in Japan's Political System and Foreign Policy
In Japan, the fallout of the crisis (the Showa Depression) brought severe economic hardship, plunging rural farming villages into dire poverty.
Deep distrust toward party politicians and the zaibatsu financial cliques surged among the populace, leading to soaring expectations toward the military. By the 1930s, the era of party cabinets came to an end, and the political influence of the military expanded dramatically.
Starting with the Manchurian Incident, Japan deepened its military encroachment into mainland China and withdrew from the League of Nations, shifting its course from international cooperation to international isolation. Domestically, as the Second Sino-Japanese War dragged on, the state tightened a wartime mobilization regime that channeled all national resources and human lives directly into the war effort.

[Key Takeaway]
Never overlook the fact that Japan's pivot toward militarism was driven not merely by the military acting on its own, but also by widespread social anxiety caused by the economic depression, along with vocal public opinion and sensationalist media that actively cheered on and legitimized overseas expansion. Examining issues from multifaceted perspectives is a vital skill tested on the Common Test!

4. The Course of World War II and the Seeds of the Postwar World

Triggered by Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939, World War II erupted, and Japan entered the Pacific War in 1941. This conflict turned into a total war on a scale far surpassing World War I, causing catastrophic loss of life not only among soldiers but also among vast numbers of innocent civilians.

① Friction within the Allies: The Seeds of US-Soviet Rivalry
To defeat the Axis powers (Japan, Germany, Italy, etc.), capitalist nations like the United States and Britain allied with the socialist Soviet Union under the banner of the "Allied Powers." Beneath this united front to defeat a common foe, however, maneuvering and ideological rivalry between the US and the USSR (laying the groundwork for the Cold War) over the leadership of the postwar international order had already begun during the war years.

② The Dawn of "Decolonization" in Asia and Africa
Ironically, the fierce warfare waged by the Western imperial powers and Japan across Asia profoundly shattered the long-standing Western colonial power structure.
National self-determination movements gained unprecedented momentum across colonized territories. From the closing stages of the war into the postwar period, a massive global wave of "decolonization" took off as nations throughout Asia and Africa fought for and achieved national independence.

[Common Pitfall]
It is easy to assume that "the US-Soviet rivalry (Cold War) only began after World War II had completely ended." However, questions on the Common Test frequently focus on how the seeds of mutual suspicion and geopolitical rivalry were already sprouting during wartime summits and postwar planning conferences. Always treat historical watersheds not as sudden breaks, but as continuous, interconnected processes!

5. Structural Shifts, Massification, and Contemporary Global Challenges

In History Inquiry, you are expected not merely to learn past events, but to investigate "how those events directly connect to our lives today."

- Massification and Contemporary Democracy:
Public opinion amplified through mass media can serve as a powerful engine for democracy; at the same time, it carries the dangerous potential to fan emotional nationalism, xenophobia, and collective hysteria. In our present digital age with hyper-advanced information technology, how should we critically evaluate media sources and responsibly participate in politics?
- The Dilemma of International Cooperation and the Path to Peace:
The painful lessons of the 1930s—where one nation's economic downturn cascaded across the world, and self-interested protectionism (economic blocs) wrecked international cooperation and plunged humanity into war—offer profound warnings for modern global society as we face complex, borderless crises today.

Common Test Strategy: Tips for Source Analysis and Inquiry Questions

In the Common Test for History Inquiry, you will encounter primary and secondary sources you have never seen before (historical posters, newspaper editorials, statistical charts, speeches, etc.).
When working through these questions, keep these three steps in mind:
1. Check the date and the author/creator: Was it produced around World War I, during the Great Depression, or under the wartime mobilization regime?
2. Match the hypothesis with textual evidence: "What inference or hypothesis can be drawn from this source?" and "Where is the concrete textual or visual evidence that supports it?" Trace this logically using the text, graphs, and tables.
3. Pay close attention to the behavior of the masses: Don't just focus on political leaders or the military elite; examine how ordinary people—factory workers, women, conscripted soldiers, and consumers—are represented, and observe how public sentiment shifts over time.

[Chapter Summary]
- Through the total war of World War I, the rise of socialism (founding of the USSR) and mass political participation (the growing power of public opinion) advanced rapidly.
- In the 1920s, a mass society founded on mass production and mass consumption emerged, but the 1929 Great Depression fractured the framework of international cooperation.
- Amid the economic turmoil, hardline foreign policies gained fierce public support in nations like Japan, accelerating the slide toward World War II.
- Even during World War II, the seeds of the US-Soviet Cold War rivalry were already planted, alongside a surge in anti-colonial national consciousness that heralded the postwar era of decolonization.