【Kanbun】Score Booster! The Essential Master Guide to Classical Chinese Sentence Structure
Hello everyone! How is your classical Chinese (Kanbun) study coming along? Many people feel that "it's all just Kanji and it looks difficult..." or "the return marks and auxiliary kana are so confusing!" But don't worry. Kanbun is just like a "puzzle." Once you master the fundamental sentence structure and the core syntactic formulas (句法), you will be able to read through texts surprisingly smoothly.
For the Common Test, understanding sentence structure directly translates to points when parsing unseen passages, determining return marks (返り点), and selecting the correct 書き下し文 (kakikudashibun). In this guide, we first break down the architecture of Kanbun sentences, followed by the most essential syntax patterns tested on the exam. Let's take it step by step!
1. The Core Architecture: Kanbun Sentence Structures (文構造)
Unlike Japanese, which follows a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) order, Classical Chinese is fundamentally an SVO language (Subject-Verb-Object), similar to English. Understanding this difference is the secret to mastering return marks like レ点 and 一二点!
① Subject + Predicate (主語 ＋ 述語) [S + V]
The simplest pattern: the Subject is followed directly by a Verb or Adjective.
・Example: 「春来」 (Haru kitaru) = Spring comes.
・Example: 「花紅」 (Hana kurenai nari) = Flowers are red.
Because the word order matches Japanese (Subject first, Predicate second), no return mark is needed.
② Subject + Predicate + Object (主語 ＋ 述語 ＋ 目的語) [S + V + O]
This is where Classical Chinese and Japanese diverge! In Chinese, the Object (目的語) sits directly after the Verb. When reading into Japanese (訓読), you must read the Object first (marked with particles like を or に), and then jump back up to read the Verb.
・Structure: Verb + Object (e.g., 「読書」 = read [V] + book [O]).
・Japanese reading: "Sho wo yomu" (Read books).
Because the reading order is reversed, a return mark (such as a レ点) is placed between the Verb and the Object.
③ Subject + Predicate + Complement (主語 ＋ 述語 ＋ 補語) [S + V + C]
A Complement (補語) supplies extra information about location, destination, origin, time, or target ("to/at/from/than ~"). Complements also follow the Verb in Chinese, frequently preceded by prepositions like 「於」, 「于」, or 「乎」 (which are often treated as 置き字 and not read aloud).
・Example: 「登山」 (Yama ni noboru) = Climb [V] the mountain [C].
・Example: 「問於師」 (Shi ni tou) = Inquire [V] of the teacher [C].
Just like objects, complements require return marks because Japanese reads the destination or target before the verb.
④ Subject + Predicate + Object + Complement (主語 ＋ 述語 ＋ 目的語 ＋ 補語) [S + V + O + C]
A verb can take both an Object and a Complement (or two objects, such as "give someone something").
・Example: 「与人書」 (Hito ni sho wo atau) = Give [V] a person [C/O1] a book [O2].
When multiple elements trail the verb, compound return marks such as 一・二点 or 上・中・下点 guide the reader to construct the proper Japanese sentence order.
⑤ Modifiers and Inversion (修飾語・倒置)
・Modifiers (修飾語): Adjectives modify nouns from the front (e.g., 「良友」= good friend), and adverbs modify predicates from the front (e.g., 「常読書」= always read books).
・Inversion (倒置): In questions, exclamations, or emphatic statements, an object or complement may move before the verb, or the predicate may precede the subject for rhetorical effect.
2. Negation: 〜 is not / does not
Now let's examine specific sentence formulas (句法) built on these structures. First is negation, expressing "does not ~" or "is not ~."
① Simple Negation
Uses characters like "不" (not), "非" (not), "無" (does not have), and "莫" (none).
・不 + Verb : "—zu" (does not ~)
・非 + Noun : "—ni arazu" (is not ~)
・無 + Noun : "—nashi" (there is no ~)
② Partial Negation vs. Total Negation (Frequent Test Trap!)
Pay close attention to the position of the adverb (e.g., "always," "necessarily," "again") relative to the negative character!
・【Partial Negation】 (It is not the case that everything is ~)
不 + Adverb (Example: "不常〜") : "tsune niwa ~zu" (does not always ~)
Example: I don't always eat vegetables (sometimes I do).
・【Total Negation】 (Always does not ~)
Adverb + 不 (Example: "常不〜") : "tsune ni ~zu" (always does not ~)
Example: I never eat vegetables (completely avoiding them).
Tip: When "不" precedes the adverb, it negates the adverb itself ("not necessarily", "not always").
③ Double Negation
Stacking two negatives expresses a strong affirmation.
"無 A 不 B" (There is no A that does not B) = All A's B.
★Exam Point: Authors frequently employ double negation to deliver their central argument or climax with emphatic force.
3. Question & Rhetorical Question: Is it ~? / No, it is not!
The distinction between a standard question and a rhetorical question is one of the most heavily tested areas on the Common Test.
① Question (Simple Inquiry)
Uses question words like "What," "Who," "Where/How (安)," or "Which (孰)."
何 … 乎 (~ka) : Is it ~?
② Rhetorical Question (Strong Reversal / Negation)
Phrased as a question, but fundamentally asserts a strong negative: "How could it possibly be ~? (No, it is not!)."
・"豈 (ani) 〜んや" : How could it be ~? (No, certainly not!)
・"何 (nan) ぞ 〜んや" : Why / How could ~? (It cannot be!)
The Trick to Identifying: If the kakikudashibun ends in the conjectural/volitional auxiliary "~n" (未然形 + ん) followed by the particle "ya" (や), it is almost certainly a rhetorical question!
4. Causative: To make someone do ~
This expression describes causing or permitting someone to perform an action ("make / let / have").
Common causative markers include "使", "令", "教", and "遣".
・Structure: "使 A B"
・Reading: "AをしてBせしむ" (Make A do B)
・Meaning: Cause/Allow A to do B
Key Rule: Remember the particle pair "wo shite" (をして) marking the agent A, and the causative auxiliary suffix "seshimu" (せしむ) on the verb B.
5. Passive: To be ~ed
This expresses being affected by an action performed by someone else.
Four primary patterns appear in texts:
① Place "見", "被", "為", or "受" directly before the verb.
② "A 為 B 所 C" : A is C-ed by B (A, B no tokoro to narite, C-saruru).
③ Place "於", "于", or "乎" after the verb to introduce the agent.
④ Inferred purely from context (no overt passive marker character).
Tip: Whenever you see the combination of "為" and "所", identify it immediately as a passive construction.
6. Conditional: If ~ happens
Conditional structures establish a hypothetical or concessive premise.
・Hypothetical (仮定): Characters like "如", "若", and "苟" placed at the start of a clause read as "moshishi ~ba" (If ~ happens...).
・Concessive (逆接仮定・確定): The character "雖" reads as "Iedomo" (Even though / Even if ~).
7. Comparison & Superlative: Better than ~ / The best
Syntactic formulas for comparing two things or indicating the pinnacle.
・"A 不若 B" / "A 不如 B" : A does not equal B (B is better than A).
・"莫如 B" / "莫若 B" : Nothing equals B (B is the best / supreme).
Memory Shortcut: In "A 不若 B" (A shikazu B), remember that B is the winner!
【Final Strategy for Common Test Success】
Classical Chinese is a highly regular system. When you read a passage:
1. Spot the core frame: Identify the Subject, Verb, and Object/Complement first.
2. Check the syntax markers: Look for negative, rhetorical, causative, or passive keywords.
3. Follow the return marks: Trace the return order to verify that your interpretation matches grammatical Japanese word order.
Mastering these foundational sentence structures and syntax patterns will turn the 45-point Kanbun section of your Common Test into your most dependable scoring asset!