Welcome to History: The First World War and the Peace Settlement
Welcome! In these study notes, we are exploring one of the most significant periods in modern history: The First World War (1914–1918) and the Peace Settlement (1919). This topic is part of your study into the challenges for Britain, Europe and the wider world 1901 to the present day.
Don't worry if this topic feels large or complicated at first. We will break down every event into clear, step-by-step pieces. You will discover why the war started, what life was like for soldiers and civilians, how the war was truly global, and how world leaders tried to build peace once the fighting stopped.
1. The Causes of the First World War
Why did a conflict break out across the world in 1914? Historians divide the causes into long-term tensions that built up over decades, and one dramatic short-term trigger (the spark).
The Long-Term Causes: Remember M-A-I-N
To easily remember the four deep causes of the war, use the word M-A-I-N:
M – Militarism: European countries competed to build up massive armies and powerful navies. A major example was the Anglo-German naval arms race. Britain launched a revolutionary new battleship called HMS Dreadnought in 1906, prompting Germany (under Admiral von Tirpitz) to expand its High Seas Fleet to compete.
A – Alliances: Countries signed treaties promising to defend each other if attacked. By 1914, Europe was divided into two powerful armed camps:
• The Triple Entente (1907): Great Britain, France, and the Russian Empire.
• The Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (note: Italy chose to stay neutral in 1914 and later joined the Entente in 1915).
I – Imperialism: Powerful European nations competed to conquer overseas territories (such as the "Scramble for Africa"). Arguments over colonies, like the Moroccan Crises of 1905 and 1911, created fierce distrust.
N – Nationalism: A strong feeling of pride and devotion to one's own nation. In the Balkan region (often called the "powder keg of Europe"), many Slavic groups wanted independence from large empires, especially Austria-Hungary.
The Spark: The Assassination in Sarajevo (1914)
28 June 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand (the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne) and his wife Sophie were visiting Sarajevo. They were shot and killed by Gavrilo Princip, a 19-year-old Bosnian Serb belonging to a nationalist group called the Black Hand.
How the Spark Lit the Fire: The July Crisis
Think of the alliance system like a row of dominoes—once one was knocked over, the rest quickly followed:
1. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination and sent an ultimatum, backed by Germany's promise of complete support (the "blank cheque").
2. Russia mobilized its army to defend Serbia.
3. Germany declared war on Russia (1 August) and France (3 August).
4. Germany put its war plan into action—the Schlieffen Plan—which aimed to defeat France quickly by invading through neutral Belgium.
5. 4 August 1914: Britain had signed the 1839 Treaty of London guaranteeing Belgian neutrality. When German forces invaded Belgium, Britain officially declared war on Germany.
Key Takeaway: The assassination of Franz Ferdinand was the spark, but the built-up tensions of M-A-I-N (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) turned a regional crisis into a world war.
2. The Nature of the Conflict and Key Theatres
The Western Front and Trench Warfare
The German Schlieffen Plan failed after the Battle of the Marne (September 1914). Both sides tried to outflank each other in the "Race to the Sea," ending in an unbroken line of trenches stretching all the way from the Swiss border to the North Sea.
Trench systems were complex networks made up of several lines:
• Frontline Trenches: Where soldiers kept watch and launched attacks.
• Support and Reserve Trenches: Located behind the frontline to provide backup troops, supplies, and rest areas.
• Communication Trenches: Connected the lines so men, messages, and supplies could move safely.
• Key Features: Trenches included duckboards on the muddy floor, fire steps to look over the parapet, sandbags for protection, and thick belts of barbed wire in front.
• No Man's Land: The dangerous, exposed ground between the enemy trenches.
Industrialized Warfare and New Weapons
The First World War was the first industrial war, where factory-produced technology changed fighting forever:
• Artillery: Massive heavy guns that fired explosive shells over long distances. Artillery caused around 60% of all battlefield casualties.
• Machine Guns: Rapid-fire weapons (such as the Maxim or Vickers guns) that could fire hundreds of rounds a minute, making charges across open ground deadly.
• Poison Gas: First used on a large scale by Germany at the Second Battle of Ypres (1915) using Chlorine gas. Later, Phosgene and Mustard gas were introduced.
• Tanks: Armoured vehicles developed by Britain to crush barbed wire and cross trenches. They were first used in battle in 1916 at Flers-Courcelette during the Battle of the Somme.
• Other Weapons: Combat aircraft (used for scouting and dogfights) and flamethrowers.
Two Major Battles on the Western Front
• The Battle of the Somme (1 July – 18 November 1916): Led by British Commander-in-Chief General Douglas Haig. On the first day (1 July 1916), the British Army suffered 57,470 casualties (including 19,240 deaths)—making it the bloodiest day in British military history.
• The Battle of Passchendaele / Third Ypres (July – November 1917): Remembered for relentless rain that turned the shell-blasted battlefield into a swamp of deep mud and waterlogged craters.
A Truly Global War: The British Empire and Beyond
The First World War was not fought only in France and Belgium. It reached across the globe:
• Empire Soldiers: Over 1.4 million Indian soldiers and non-combatants served in the war. Vital contributions were also made by troops from Canada, Australia, New Zealand (the ANZACs who fought at Gallipoli in 1915), South Africa, and the British West Indies.
• Other Theatres: Fierce fighting took place on the Eastern Front (Russia vs. Germany and Austria-Hungary), the Italian Front, and in the Middle East (Mesopotamia, Palestine, Gallipoli).
• The War at Sea: The British Grand Fleet clashed with the German fleet at the Battle of Jutland (1916). Germany also launched unrestricted submarine warfare using U-boats to sink merchant ships supplying Britain.
Key Takeaway: Stalemate on the Western Front led to deep trench networks and devastating industrial weapons. Millions of soldiers across the British Empire and the world served far beyond the fields of France.
3. The British Home Front
The First World War was a "total war"—meaning it affected the everyday lives of ordinary citizens at home, not just soldiers on the battlefield.
The Defence of the Realm Act (DORA, August 1914)
To control the war effort, the British government passed DORA. This gave the government sweeping powers to:
• Censor newspapers and private letters from soldiers.
• Requisition (take over) land, factories, and railways for military use.
• Introduce food rationing to stop shortages caused by German U-boats.
• Control pub opening hours and alter beer strength to keep factory workers productive.
Recruitment, Conscription, and Conscientious Objectors
• Voluntary Recruitment (1914–1915): Lord Kitchener led a famous poster campaign ("Your Country Needs You"). Friends, neighbours, and workmates joined together in "Pals Battalions".
• Conscription (1916): As casualties mounted, voluntary enlistment was not enough. The government passed the Military Service Act 1916, making military service compulsory for men aged 18 to 41.
• Conscientious Objectors: People who refused to fight on moral, religious, or political grounds (often nicknamed "Conchies"). Some agreed to do non-combat duties like driving ambulances, while those who refused all war work faced imprisonment.
Women and the War Effort
With millions of men serving in the military, women stepped forward to keep the country running:
• "Munitionettes": Hundreds of thousands of women worked long, dangerous hours in munitions factories making shells and explosives.
• Women's Land Army: Worked on farms to produce food and prevent starvation.
• Transport & Nursing: Women worked as bus conductors, train staff, and volunteered as nurses in organizations such as the Voluntary Aid Detachments (VADs) and First Aid Nursing Yeomanry (FANY).
• Political Change: Women's vital wartime work helped shift public and political attitudes. In 1918, Parliament passed the Representation of the People Act 1918, giving all men over 21 and women over 30 (who met property qualifications) the right to vote.
Key Takeaway: The Home Front transformed daily life in Britain through government control (DORA), conscription, and the vital wartime roles played by women.
4. The End of the War and the Peace Settlement
Turning Points (1917–1918)
• Russia Leaves the War (1917–1918): Following the Russian Revolutions of 1917, Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, exiting the war and handing land over to Germany.
• The USA Enters the War (April 1917): The United States brought fresh troops, financial power, and supplies to the Allied side.
• The German Spring Offensive (1918): Germany launched a final massive push (the Ludendorff Offensive). Although they made early gains, the German army ran out of supplies and became exhausted.
• The Hundred Days Offensive (August–November 1918): The Allies launched a successful counter-attack, pushing the German army back across the Western Front.
The Armistice (11 November 1918)
Faced with military defeat, domestic revolution, and starvation at home, Germany agreed to an Armistice (a ceasefire to stop the fighting). It came into effect at 11:00 am on 11 November 1918.
The Paris Peace Conference and the "Big Three"
In 1919, world leaders met at the Palace of Versailles near Paris to decide the permanent terms of peace. The discussions were dominated by the "Big Three":
• David Lloyd George (Prime Minister of Britain): Wanted a compromise. He wanted Germany punished to satisfy the British public, but did not want Germany completely destroyed because he wanted to keep trading with them and was wary of French dominance.
• Georges Clemenceau (Prime Minister of France): Known as "The Tiger". France had suffered immense devastation. He wanted harsh revenge, heavy reparations, and Germany's military crippled so France could never be invaded again.
• Woodrow Wilson (President of the USA): An idealist who proposed his Fourteen Points. He wanted lasting peace, international co-operation through a League of Nations, and national self-determination (allowing national groups to govern themselves).
The Treaty of Versailles (Signed 28 June 1919)
The treaty imposed on Germany can be remembered using the mnemonic G-A-R-G-L-e:
G – Guilt: Article 231 (the "War Guilt Clause") forced Germany to accept full, sole responsibility for causing all the loss and damage of the war.
A – Armed Forces (Military Restrictions):
• German army limited to 100,000 volunteers.
• Conscription was banned.
• No tanks, combat aircraft, or submarines were permitted.
• Navy limited to only 6 battleships.
• The Rhineland (bordering France) was permanently demilitarised (no German soldiers allowed).
R – Reparations: Germany was ordered to pay for war damage. In 1921, this sum was set at £6.6 billion (132 billion gold marks).
G – German Land / Territorial Losses:
• Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France.
• Eupen-Malmedy was given to Belgium.
• Northern Schleswig was transferred to Denmark.
• The Polish Corridor and the free city of Danzig were created, giving Poland access to the sea and cutting East Prussia off from the rest of Germany.
• The Saarland (a coal-rich region) was placed under League of Nations control for 15 years.
• All of Germany's overseas colonies were confiscated and run as mandates by the League of Nations.
L-e – League of Nations: An international peacekeeping organisation was established to resolve future disputes peacefully. However, Germany was initially banned from joining.
Other Peace Treaties and the Collapse of Empires
The peace settlement did not only affect Germany. Treaties were also signed with Germany's allies: the Treaty of Saint-Germain (with Austria), the Treaty of Trianon (with Hungary), the Treaty of Neuilly (with Bulgaria), and the Treaty of Sèvres/Lausanne (with the Ottoman Empire). The war brought about the complete collapse of four great empires: the German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and Ottoman Empires.
Key Takeaway: The Treaty of Versailles severely punished Germany through the War Guilt clause, military cuts, heavy reparations (£6.6 billion), and lost land, leaving deep resentment in post-war Europe.
5. Common Pitfalls and Misconceptions to Avoid
When revising this topic, make sure you don't fall into these common traps:
• Trap 1: Confusing the Armistice with the Peace Treaty.
Correction: The Armistice (11 November 1918) was simply a ceasefire that ended the fighting. The Treaty of Versailles (28 June 1919) was the actual legal peace agreement signed months later.
• Trap 2: The "Lions Led by Donkeys" Stereotype.
Correction: Popular culture sometimes portrays all British generals as incompetent fools who didn't care about their men. While huge mistakes were made (such as on the first day of the Somme), historians recognise that commanders faced brand-new industrial technologies and limited battlefield communications. Over time, tactics evolved into sophisticated combined-arms operations that helped win the war in 1918.
• Trap 3: Thinking the War Was Only British and German Soldiers in France.
Correction: The war was truly global. Over 1.4 million Indian soldiers served, alongside troops from Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Africa, and the West Indies, fighting across the Eastern Front, Middle East, Africa, and at sea.
• Trap 4: Blaming the Entire War on One Assassination.
Correction: While Franz Ferdinand's death triggered the crisis, the war could not have happened on such a scale without the long-term M-A-I-N tensions already dividing Europe.
Quick Chapter Summary
• Causes: Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, Nationalism (M-A-I-N) + The Sarajevo Assassination (1914).
• Trench Warfare: Stalemates, artillery, machine guns, poison gas, and tanks on the Western Front (Somme 1916, Passchendaele 1917).
• Home Front: DORA, rationing, conscription (1916), women workers ("Munitionettes", Land Army), and the 1918 vote.
• The Peace Settlement: Armistice (11 Nov 1918), Big Three (Lloyd George, Clemenceau, Wilson), and the Treaty of Versailles 1919 (G-A-R-G-L-e).