Introduction to Issues of Human Life and Death

Welcome! In this chapter, we explore some of the biggest "life and death" questions in ethics. We will look at how three different ethical theories — Natural Moral Law, Situation Ethics, and Virtue Ethics — help us decide what is right or wrong when it comes to things like abortion, euthanasia, and capital punishment.

Ethical issues can feel overwhelming because they deal with very personal and emotional topics. Don't worry if it feels complicated at first! We will break down each issue and look at them through the "lens" of each theory. Think of these theories as different pairs of glasses: when you put on the "Natural Moral Law" glasses, you see the world one way; when you switch to "Situation Ethics," you see it differently.

The Three Key Theories: A Quick Refresher

Before we dive into the issues, let’s remember what our three main theories care about:

  • Natural Moral Law (NML): Founded by Aquinas. It is legalistic and absolutist. It follows Primary Precepts, the most important being the preservation of life and ordered society. It also uses the Principle of Double Effect.
  • Situation Ethics (SE): Founded by Joseph Fletcher. It is teleological (goal-oriented). Its only "rule" is Agape (unconditional love). It asks: "What is the most loving thing to do in this specific situation?"
  • Virtue Ethics (VE): Founded by Aristotle. It isn't about rules or outcomes; it's about character. It asks: "What would a virtuous person do?" and aims for Eudaimonia (human flourishing).

Issue 1: Embryo Research, Cloning, and "Designer Babies"

This topic looks at the very beginning of life and how far science should go to "improve" or study it.

Natural Moral Law (NML)

NML is generally against these practices.
- Preservation of Life: NML usually argues that life begins at conception. Therefore, experimenting on embryos (which are destroyed in the process) is the same as murder.
- Worship God: By "designing" babies or cloning, humans are "playing God" and interfering with the natural order God created.
- Procreation: Cloning separates the act of procreation from the natural sexual union, which NML views as wrong.

Situation Ethics (SE)

SE is often supportive if the goal is loving.
- Agape: If embryo research leads to a cure for Parkinson’s disease or Alzheimers, it could be seen as the most loving thing to do for millions of sufferers.
- Personalism: Fletcher argued that "people" are more important than biological "laws." An embryo is not yet a "person" with a social life or feelings, so its life might be sacrificed to help actual persons.

Virtue Ethics (VE)

VE is more nuanced.
- Flourishing: If "designer babies" mean we can eliminate painful genetic diseases, this promotes Eudaimonia.
- The Mean: A virtuous scientist must find the balance between recklessness (cloning without care) and cowardice (fear of all new technology). Phronesis (practical wisdom) is needed to decide which research is actually "good."

Quick Review: NML says "No" because it breaks natural laws; SE says "Yes" if it helps people; VE asks if it helps us become better versions of ourselves.

Issue 2: Abortion

Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy. It is one of the most debated topics in ethics.

Natural Moral Law (NML)

NML takes a hard-line "No" approach.
- Preservation of Life: This is the most important Primary Precept. Abortion ends a life, so it is always wrong.
- The Principle of Double Effect: There is one tiny exception. If a mother has an ectopic pregnancy (where the embryo grows in the fallopian tube), a doctor can remove the tube to save the mother's life. The intention is to save the mother, and the death of the embryo is an unintended (though certain) side-effect.

Situation Ethics (SE)

SE says "It depends."
- Relativism: There is no absolute "No." In cases of rape, or where the mother’s mental health is at risk, abortion might be the most loving (Agapeic) choice.
- Fletcher famously said that we should not love "laws" but "people." The mother's life and well-being are the priority.

Virtue Ethics (VE)

VE focuses on motives and character.
- Aristotle didn't see the fetus as a person from day one, but he valued the potential for life.
- A woman must use phronesis. Is she having an abortion out of selfishness (a vice) or because she truly cannot provide a life where a child could flourish (a virtuous consideration)?

Issue 3: Voluntary Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide

This is when a person with a terminal or painful illness chooses to end their life, often with help.

Natural Moral Law (NML)

NML is strictly against euthanasia.
- Preservation of Life: Life is a gift from God, and we have a duty to protect it until natural death.
- Ordered Society: If we allow doctors to kill patients, it might lead to a "slippery slope" where society stops valuing the elderly or disabled.
- Double Effect: Again, if a doctor gives a high dose of morphine to stop pain, and the patient happens to die sooner, this is allowed because the intention was to stop pain, not to kill.

Situation Ethics (SE)

SE is generally in favour of euthanasia.
- Pragmatism: It is not "practical" or "loving" to keep someone alive in extreme agony against their will.
- Personalism: The person's autonomy and dignity are more important than a religious rule that says "you must suffer."

Virtue Ethics (VE)

VE looks at the virtue of courage.
- Is it more courageous to endure suffering, or is it courageous to face death with dignity?
- Aristotle generally disliked suicide because it was an act of "cowardice" to escape life's problems, but modern Virtue Ethicists might argue that "death with dignity" supports Eudaimonia when a life of flourishing is no longer possible.

Did you know? The word "Euthanasia" comes from Greek, meaning "a good death."

Issue 4: Capital Punishment

This is the state-sanctioned killing of someone as a punishment for a crime (the death penalty).

Natural Moral Law (NML)

Interestingly, NML can support the death penalty.
- Ordered Society: Aquinas argued that just as a surgeon might cut off a diseased limb to save the whole body, the state can execute a dangerous criminal to save the rest of society.
- However, many modern NML thinkers argue that because we have secure prisons, we no longer need to kill to keep society safe, so we should preserve life instead.

Situation Ethics (SE)

SE is usually against it, but it’s not absolute.
- Agape: Is killing a criminal the most loving thing? Usually, SE would focus on reforming the person.
- However, if executing one person saved thousands of others (e.g., a mass terrorist), SE might argue it is the most loving thing for the majority.

Virtue Ethics (VE)

VE focuses on Justice.
- Justice is a "mean" between doing too much harm and not enough.
- A virtuous society must ask: "Does this punishment make us better people, or does it make us more violent?" Aristotle believed in retribution (an eye for an eye), but modern VE often looks at whether the punishment is "temperate" and "just."

AO2: Evaluation Points (How to get the top marks!)

When you write your 15-mark AO2 essays, you need to weigh up these arguments. Here are some "thinking points":

Strengths and Weaknesses of Natural Moral Law:
  • Strength: It provides clear, universal rules. It values all human life equally.
  • Weakness: It is very rigid. It can seem cruel to force a woman to keep a baby from a rape, or to force a dying person to stay in pain.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Situation Ethics:
  • Strength: It is flexible and compassionate. It puts people before cold, hard rules.
  • Weakness: "Love" is subjective. What one person thinks is loving, another might think is wrong. It can be hard to predict the future outcomes of our "loving" actions.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Virtue Ethics:
  • Strength: It considers the whole person and their emotions, not just a single act. It encourages us to be better people.
  • Weakness: It doesn't give "clear answers." It can be very difficult to know what the "virtuous" choice is in a crisis.

Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't just list what the theories say. To get AO2 marks, you must compare them. For example: "While NML provides a clear boundary on abortion by protecting the fetus, SE offers more compassion for the mother's specific circumstances."

Key Takeaway Summary

Issues of Life and Death are the ultimate testing ground for ethics.
- NML usually protects life at all costs because of God’s laws.
- SE looks for the most loving outcome in every unique situation.
- VE asks what kind of person we become based on the choices we make.
Mastering these three "perspectives" is the key to succeeding in Section B of your exam!