Welcome to Discourse: The "Big Picture" Language Level
Welcome to one of the most exciting and rewarding areas of AS Level English Language! While other language levels focus on the small puzzle pieces—like individual words (lexis) or sentence structures (grammar)—discourse steps back to look at the entire completed picture. Don't worry if this seems a bit broad at first; once you understand the basic tools, analysing discourse will become one of your strongest exam skills.
In the OCR specification, discourse is officially defined as: "extended stretches of communication occurring in different genres, modes and contexts."
Whether you are reading a political speech, an online blog, a charity campaign letter, or analysing a conversation transcript, discourse examines how a whole text is structured, how its parts link together, and how it achieves its overarching purpose.
Quick Summary: Discourse is all about how whole texts are organized, connected, and understood from start to finish.
Where Discourse Fits in Your OCR AS Level Exams
You will use discourse analysis across both examination papers in OCR H070:
1. Component 01 (Exploring Language):
- Section A: Analysing a single unseen authentic text.
- Section B: Comparing and contrasting two unseen texts (where at least one is a spoken transcript).
2. Component 02 (Exploring Contexts):
- Section B: Exploring language in relation to power or gender in authentic texts.
Key Exam Fact: You will never be asked about a set literature book. Instead, you will apply these discourse frameworks to unseen authentic texts such as speeches, letters, advertisements, interviews, and conversational transcripts.
1. Cohesion: The "Glue" That Holds a Text Together
Imagine building a brick wall. The words and sentences are the bricks, but you need mortar to stick them together. In language, that mortar is called cohesion. Cohesion refers to the specific grammatical and lexical links that connect sentences and paragraphs to one another.
A. Reference: Anaphoric vs. Cataphoric
Texts frequently refer to people, objects, or concepts using pronouns to avoid repetitive phrasing. The direction of this reference is crucial:
• Anaphoric Reference (Looking Backward):
This happens when a word refers back to an entity that has already been mentioned earlier in the text.
Example: "The teacher arrived. She was late."
Why it matters: The pronoun "She" relies on the previous sentence to make sense. It creates a smooth backward link.
• Cataphoric Reference (Looking Forward):
This happens when a word points forward to an entity that will be introduced later in the text.
Example: "Because she was late, the teacher apologized."
Why it matters: Cataphoric reference introduces suspense or places initial focus on the action before revealing the subject.
Memory Trick:
- Anaphoric = Already mentioned (looks back).
- Cataphoric = Coming next (looks forward).
B. Conjunctions: Linking Ideas Explicitly
Conjunctions are cohesive signposts that show the precise relationship between two or more clauses or sentences. OCR highlights four main types:
• Additive Conjunctions: Add information or expand on a point (e.g., and, furthermore, also).
• Adversative Conjunctions: Signal conflict, contrast, or opposition (e.g., but, however, on the other hand).
• Causal Conjunctions: Establish cause-and-effect relationships (e.g., because, therefore, as a result).
• Temporal Conjunctions: Connect events in terms of time and sequence (e.g., then, afterwards, meanwhile, finally).
Key Takeaway for Cohesion: Cohesion is all about explicit language links—whether pointing back (anaphora), pointing forward (cataphora), or joining ideas with conjunctions.
2. Coherence: Making Meaning and Sense
While cohesion deals with the grammatical links on the page, coherence is about the overall meaning in the mind of the reader or listener.
Definition: Coherence is the logical and orderly relation of ideas that makes a text semantically meaningful, clear, and easy to follow.
The Analogy: Think of a jigsaw puzzle. Cohesion is the interlocking tabs of the cardboard pieces fitting neatly together. Coherence is the actual picture on the puzzle making logical sense once assembled.
A text can have perfect cohesive grammar and yet lack coherence if the ideas jump randomly without logical sequence. In effective discourse, cohesion supports coherence.
3. Discourse Markers: Directing the Flow
Discourse markers are words and phrases used to guide the direction of communication, manage transitions, signal connections, or indicate a speaker's attitude.
Common Examples: "well", "anyway", "on the other hand", "now", "right", "so".
Discourse markers serve several vital functions in interaction and writing:
• Managing Flow and Topic Shifts: Words like "anyway" often signal that a speaker is changing the subject or returning to a main point.
• Structuring Arguments: Phrases like "on the other hand" introduce balanced or contrasting viewpoints in persuasive and argumentative texts.
• Indicating Attitude or Hesitation: Starting an utterance with "well" can signal reluctance, hesitation, or a polite disagreement.
4. Structure and Layout: Written vs. Spoken Discourse
Discourse structure depends heavily on the mode (whether the text is written or spoken).
A. Written Discourse Structure
In written texts (such as articles, letters, advertisements, or blog posts), examine how visual and structural organization shapes meaning:
• Paragraphing: How are ideas grouped? Are paragraphs long and dense for academic authority, or short and punchy for impact?
• Headings and Subheadings: How do they break up information and guide the reader's eye?
• Typography and Layout: Use of bold fonts, bullet points, pull-quotes, or columns to create visual hierarchy and emphasize core messages.
B. Spoken Discourse Structure
Spoken interaction follows dynamic, real-time structural patterns:
• Openings and Closings: Conventional rituals used to start (e.g., greetings, introductions) and end (e.g., pre-closings, farewells) a spoken interaction.
• Turn-Taking: The process by which participants take turns speaking, manage interruptions, or yield the floor.
• Adjacency Pairs: Paired utterances produced by different speakers where the first turn calls for a specific second turn (e.g., Question \(\rightarrow\) Answer, Greeting \(\rightarrow\) Greeting, Offer \(\rightarrow\) Acceptance/Refusal).
5. Spoken Discourse Transcription Conventions (OCR Standard)
In Component 01 (Section B), you will analyse at least one authentic spoken transcript. OCR uses a specific set of transcription symbols. You must know exactly what each symbol represents:
• (.) = Micropause (a tiny pause of less than a second).
Example: I was thinking (.) maybe we could leave now.
• (2) = Timed pause in seconds (the number inside the brackets shows the duration).
Example: He waited (3) but nobody answered.
• WORD = Emphatic stress (capital letters show that a word or syllable is spoken with extra volume or emphasis).
Example: I said NO such thing.
• [ ] = Overlapping speech (square brackets show words spoken simultaneously by two speakers).
Example:
Speaker A: We should go [tomorrow]
Speaker B: [tomorrow] is fine.
• // = Interruption or end of a conversational turn.
Example: I wanted to say that //
Exam Tip: When quoting from a spoken transcript, always keep the transcription symbols intact in your quotations (e.g., "the use of emphatic stress in 'I said NO'") to show precise linguistic awareness.
6. Higher-Band Technique: Identifying "Patterns of Language Use"
Examiners award the highest marks to students who perform systematic, synoptic analysis. This means you do not simply list features one by one; you group features together across different language levels to identify a broader pattern of language use.
What is a Pattern?
A pattern requires multiple instances across the text working towards the same communicative effect—never base a pattern on a single isolated example!
Worked Example: Identifying a "Discourse of Authority"
Imagine analysing an official safety briefing or a legal notice. Rather than treating discourse, grammar, and lexis in separate silos, you can show how they combine to create an authoritative discourse:
1. Grammar Level: Frequent imperative verbs (e.g., "Remain seated") and deontic modal verbs (e.g., "You must submit").
2. Discourse Level: Clear anaphoric references connecting regulations to legal penalties, alongside strict sequential temporal conjunctions (e.g., "first", "then", "finally").
3. Lexis Level: Formal legal terminology.
By bringing these levels together under one conceptual umbrella (a discourse of authority), you provide the synoptic analysis OCR examiners look for in top-band answers.
7. Common Pitfalls to Avoid
OCR examiners frequently highlight the following common mistakes in their reports. Keep these in mind to protect your marks:
1. The "Makes It Flow" Trap (Vague Analysis):
Never write that a feature "creates an effect", "makes it interesting", or "makes the text flow" without using exact terminology. Name the device (e.g., anaphoric reference, causal conjunction) and explain specifically how it creates cohesion or directs the reader's understanding.
2. The "Checklist" Approach (Mechanical Writing):
Avoid treating the language levels like a rigid shopping list (e.g., writing a standalone paragraph on lexis, then one on grammar, then one on discourse) without connecting them to context, purpose, power, or gender.
3. Misidentifying the Genre:
Pay close attention to what the text actually is. Never call a real spoken conversation transcript a "script" (a script is written drama). Similarly, do not call an authentic campaign letter a "newspaper article."
4. Conflating Standard English and Received Pronunciation (RP):
These are two completely different linguistic concepts:
- Standard English is a dialect (a system of grammar and vocabulary).
- Received Pronunciation (RP) is an accent (a way of pronouncing sounds).
A speaker can speak Standard English in a regional accent, or use non-standard grammar in an RP accent.
5. Single-Instance "Patterns":
Do not claim a speaker or writer has established a structural pattern if you have only found one example. Cite multiple occurrences to prove it is a consistent discourse strategy.
Quick Review: Essential Terms Checklist
Before moving on, test yourself on these core discourse concepts:
• Discourse: Extended stretches of language across genres, modes, and contexts.
• Cohesion: Grammatical and lexical links (the "glue") holding a text together.
• Anaphoric Reference: Pointing backward to previously stated information.
• Cataphoric Reference: Pointing forward to information that follows.
• Coherence: The logical, meaningful structure of ideas in a text.
• Discourse Markers: Words/phrases managing conversational flow, transitions, or speaker attitude.
• Adjacency Pairs: Two-part conversational exchanges (e.g., Question-Answer).
• Transcription Symbols: (.) for micropause, (2) for timed pause, WORD for stress, [ ] for overlap, // for interruption.