Welcome to the World of Psychological Approaches!
Ever wondered why you do the things you do? Is it because of your genes? Your childhood? Or perhaps how you were rewarded as a kid? In Psychology, there isn't just one answer. Think of "Approaches" as different sets of coloured glasses. When you put on the "Biological" glasses, everything looks like it's caused by brain chemistry. When you switch to the "Behaviourist" glasses, you see everything as a result of your environment.
In this chapter, we are going to explore the six main perspectives that psychologists use to explain human behaviour. Don't worry if it feels like a lot to take in—we'll break it down bit by bit!
1. The Origins of Psychology
Before Psychology was a science, it was part of Philosophy. It all changed in 1879 with a man named Wilhelm Wundt.
Wilhelm Wundt and Introspection
Wundt opened the first experimental psychology lab in Germany. He wanted to study the mind in a scientific way. His main method was Introspection.
What is Introspection? It literally means "looking into." Wundt would ask people to look at an object (like a ticking metronome) and describe their internal thought processes in great detail—their feelings, sensations, and images.
The Emergence of Psychology as a Science
Wundt tried to make his studies scientific by using standardised procedures (doing the same thing with every person) and controlled environments. However, later psychologists (like the Behaviourists) criticised him, saying thoughts are too private to be measured accurately. This led to the modern scientific approach we use today, which focuses on objective and measurable behaviour.
Quick Review: Wundt is the "Father of Psychology" because he moved it from philosophy to lab-based science using introspection.
2. The Learning Approaches (Part 1): Behaviourism
Behaviourists believe we are born as a "tabula rasa" (a blank slate) and everything we are is learned from our environment. They only care about behaviour they can see and measure.
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
This is learning through association. Ivan Pavlov showed that dogs could be trained to salivate at the sound of a bell if the bell was repeatedly paired with food.
Example: If you always hear a specific notification sound before getting a text from someone you like, you might start feeling happy just hearing the sound! That's association.
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
This is learning through consequences. B.F. Skinner used "Skinner Boxes" with rats to show how behaviour changes based on what happens next:
- Positive Reinforcement: Receiving a reward for a behaviour (e.g., a rat gets a food pellet for pressing a lever). This makes the behaviour more likely.
- Negative Reinforcement: Doing something to stop something unpleasant (e.g., a rat presses a lever to stop an electric shock). This also makes the behaviour more likely.
- Punishment: An unpleasant consequence that makes a behaviour less likely.
Key Takeaway: Behaviourism = Environment + Rewards/Associations. No "thinking" involved!
3. The Learning Approaches (Part 2): Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Albert Bandura agreed with the behaviourists but added a twist: we also learn by watching others. This is called Observational Learning.
Key Concepts of SLT
- Imitation: Copying the behaviour of others.
- Identification: We are more likely to copy people we admire or feel similar to (Role Models).
- Modelling: The act of demonstrating a behaviour for others to see.
- Vicarious Reinforcement: You don't have to be rewarded yourself to learn. If you see your sibling get a chocolate bar for cleaning their room, you are more likely to clean yours!
Mediational Processes
Unlike strict behaviourists, Bandura said we do think before we copy. He identified four mental "mediational" processes:
Memory Trick: ARMM
- Attention: Do we notice the behaviour?
- Retention: Do we remember it?
- Motor Reproduction: Are we physically able to do it?
- Motivation: Do we want to do it (based on rewards/punishments)?
Did you know? In Bandura's famous Bobo Doll study, children who saw an adult being aggressive towards a toy doll were much more likely to be aggressive themselves later on.
4. The Cognitive Approach
The Cognitive approach focuses on internal mental processes like memory, perception, and thinking. They see the mind as a processor, similar to a computer.
Theoretical and Computer Models
Psychologists use models to explain how we think.
Theoretical models: Flowcharts that show how information moves through the mind (e.g., the Multi-Store Model of Memory).
Computer models: Comparing the mind to a computer (Input -> Coding -> Output).
The Role of Schema
A Schema is a "mental package" of ideas and information developed through experience. They act as mental shortcuts.
Example: Your "classroom schema" tells you to expect desks, a teacher, and chairs. If you walked into a room with a bed and a fridge, your schema would tell you this is not a classroom!
Cognitive Neuroscience
This is the modern marriage of Biology and Cognitive Psychology. It uses brain scanning (like fMRI and PET scans) to see which parts of the brain are active during certain mental tasks.
Key Takeaway: Cognitive = The mind is like a computer. Schemas help us process info quickly.
5. The Biological Approach
This approach says everything psychological is first biological. To understand behaviour, we must look at genes, neurochemistry, and the nervous system.
Genes and Behaviour
- Genotype: Your actual genetic makeup (the "blueprint").
- Phenotype: How those genes are expressed in your physical and behavioural characteristics, influenced by the environment.
Analogy: Two people might have the genetic "genotype" to be tall, but if one doesn't get enough nutrition (environment), they won't grow as tall (phenotype).
Neurochemistry and Evolution
Neurochemistry: Chemicals in the brain (neurotransmitters like Serotonin or Dopamine) affect our mood and behaviour.
Evolution: Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection suggests that behaviours that help us survive and reproduce (like attachment or aggression) are passed down through generations.
Quick Review: Biological = Genes + Brain Chemicals + Evolution. It's the "Nature" side of the debate.
6. The Psychodynamic Approach
Founded by Sigmund Freud, this approach focuses on the Unconscious Mind and childhood experiences.
The Structure of Personality
Freud said our personality is made of three parts, often in conflict:
- The Id: The "selfish brat." Operates on the pleasure principle. It wants what it wants, right now!
- The Ego: The "rational balancer." Operates on the reality principle. It tries to balance the Id and Superego.
- The Superego: The "moral police." Operates on the morality principle. It represents our conscience and our "ideal self."
Defence Mechanisms
When the Ego struggles to balance the Id and Superego, we feel anxiety. To cope, the Ego uses Defence Mechanisms:
- Repression: Pushing a scary thought into the unconscious so you "forget" it.
- Denial: Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality.
- Displacement: Taking your feelings out on a "safe" substitute (e.g., shouting at your dog because you're mad at your teacher).
Psychosexual Stages
Freud believed children go through stages (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital). If a child has a bad experience during a stage, they can become "fixated" (stuck) and it affects their adult personality.
Key Takeaway: Psychodynamic = Unconscious conflicts + Childhood + Id/Ego/Superego.
7. Humanistic Psychology
Known as the "Third Force," this approach is very positive. It rejects the idea that we are controlled by our genes or environment. Instead, it focuses on Free Will.
Self-Actualisation and Maslow
Abraham Maslow created the "Hierarchy of Needs." At the very top is Self-Actualisation—the desire to reach your full potential and become the best version of yourself.
The Self and Congruence (Carl Rogers)
Carl Rogers argued that for a person to be happy, they need Congruence. This means your Ideal Self (who you want to be) matches your Actual Self (who you are right now). If there is a big gap, you feel "Incongruent" and unhappy.
Conditions of Worth
Many of us feel we are only loved if we do what others want (e.g., "I will only love you if you get an A"). These are Conditions of Worth. Humanistic therapists provide Unconditional Positive Regard (love with no strings attached) to help people grow.
Don't worry if this seems tricky: Just remember that Humanism is the only approach that believes in 100% Free Will and focuses on the "whole person."
8. Summary Table: Comparing the Approaches
When you are asked to compare these, think about Nature vs. Nurture and Determinism (no choice) vs. Free Will.
- Behaviourism: Pure Nurture (environment), highly deterministic.
- Biological: Pure Nature (genes), highly deterministic.
- Cognitive: Both Nature (brain structure) and Nurture (learned schemas).
- Humanism: Focuses on Nurture (environment), but believes in Free Will.
- Psychodynamic: Both Nature (innate drives) and Nurture (childhood), deterministic.
Final Tip: When studying these, try to think of a specific behaviour (like Aggression) and explain it using each approach. If you can do that, you've mastered the chapter!