Welcome to Criminal Psychology!
Ever wondered why some people become criminals? Is it something they are born with, or is it something they learn from the world around them? In this chapter, we will explore different theories that try to explain criminality (why people commit crimes) and look at how we try to stop people from re-offending. Don't worry if some of the terms look big – we'll break them down step-by-step!
1. Learning Theories of Criminality
Learning theories suggest that we aren't born criminals; instead, we learn to be criminals from our environment. There are two main ways this happens.
A. Operant Conditioning (Skinner, 1948)
This theory says we learn through the consequences of our actions. If we get something good after doing something (reinforcement), we do it again. If something bad happens (punishment), we stop.
Key Terms to Know:
- Positive Reinforcement: Receiving a reward for a behavior. Example: A thief gets money (the reward) after stealing a wallet, so they are likely to steal again.
- Negative Reinforcement: Performing a behavior to escape something unpleasant. Example: A person joins a gang so that they stop being bullied by other gang members.
- Positive Punishment: Receiving something bad to stop a behavior. Example: Getting a prison sentence for committing a crime.
- Negative Punishment: Having something good taken away to stop a behavior. Example: Having your driver's license taken away for speeding.
- Primary Reinforcers: These satisfy basic biological needs, like food or water.
- Secondary Reinforcers: These have no value on their own but can be traded for primary reinforcers. Money is the best example because it lets you buy food and shelter.
Quick Review: Reinforcement = Behavior increases. Punishment = Behavior decreases.
B. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)
This theory says we learn by watching others. We don't even need to be the ones rewarded or punished; we just need to see it happen to someone else.
- Role Models: People we look up to (parents, older siblings, or even celebrities).
- Modelling: When we copy the behavior of a role model.
- Identification: When we decide we want to be like a specific person because they have qualities we admire.
- Observational Learning: Simply learning by watching what others do.
- Vicarious Reinforcement: This is a big one! It means seeing someone else get rewarded for a crime. Example: Seeing a drug dealer on TV living a flashy lifestyle with fast cars might make someone want to do the same.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Learning Theories
Strengths:
- It explains why crime often runs in families (children copy parents).
- It has real-world applications, like using Token Economies in prisons.
Weaknesses:
- It ignores nature (biology/genes). Some people are raised in "criminal" environments but never commit a crime.
- It doesn't explain "crimes of passion" that happen suddenly without any planning or previous learning.
Key Takeaway: Learning theories suggest criminal behavior is a result of rewards, avoiding punishment, and imitating people we admire.
2. Biological Explanations: Eysenck’s Personality Theory
Hans Eysenck (1964) believed that criminality comes from our personality, which is actually caused by the type of nervous system we are born with.
He identified three main "dimensions" of personality:
- Extraversion: High "E" scorers are sociable and crave excitement. This is because their nervous system is "under-aroused," so they seek thrills to feel "normal."
- Neuroticism: High "N" scorers are anxious and react strongly to stress. This is due to an overactive "fight or flight" system.
- Psychoticism: High "P" scorers are cold, aggressive, and lack empathy (they don't care about others' feelings).
The Criminal Personality: Eysenck argued that the "perfect" criminal profile is someone who scores high in E, N, and P. They crave the thrill of crime (E), they are too unstable to control their impulses (N), and they don't care if they hurt people (P).
Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't confuse Introversion with being "boring." Introverts have a nervous system that is already highly aroused, so they avoid loud or busy environments because it feels like "too much."
Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths:
- It combines nature (biology) and nurture (personality/behavior).
- It can be tested using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ).
Weaknesses:
- It suggests personality is fixed from birth, which might not be true.
- Many people score high on these scales but never commit a crime.
Key Takeaway: Eysenck suggests that the "criminal personality" (High E, N, and P) is something we are born with due to our biology.
3. Punishment and Recidivism
Recidivism is a fancy word for re-offending (when someone commits another crime after being punished for the first one). Why doesn't punishment always work?
Types of Punishment:
- Prison: Taking away freedom.
Strength: Keeps the public safe.
Weakness: It can be a "university of crime" where inmates teach each other better ways to break the law. - Community Sentencing: Doing unpaid work for the community (like cleaning up graffiti).
Strength: It avoids the negative influence of prison and lets the offender keep their job/family.
Weakness: Some people see it as a "soft" option that doesn't really punish. - Restorative Justice: The offender meets the victim to see the harm they caused.
Strength: It has high victim satisfaction and makes the offender feel remorse.
Weakness: It only works if the offender is genuinely sorry.
Key Takeaway: Punishment aims to reduce recidivism, but each method has flaws that might actually lead to more crime.
4. Treatments to Reduce Criminal Behavior
Psychologists have developed ways to help "fix" criminal behavior rather than just punishing it.
A. Token Economy Programmes
Based on Operant Conditioning. Prisoners get "tokens" (secondary reinforcers) for "pro-social" behavior (like being polite or keeping their cell clean). These tokens can be traded for rewards like extra phone time or TV privileges.
Weakness: Once they leave prison and the tokens stop, the good behavior often stops too.
B. Anger-Management Programmes
This is a cognitive treatment. It involves three stages:
- Cognitive Preparation: Learning what triggers your anger.
- Skill Acquisition: Learning techniques to stay calm (like counting to ten or deep breathing).
- Application Practice: Role-playing situations to practice the new skills.
Strength: It gives offenders the tools to change their own behavior long-term.
Key Takeaway: Token economies reward good behavior, while anger management helps offenders control their thoughts and reactions.
5. Key Studies You Need to Know
Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) - Transmission of Aggression
Aim: To see if children would imitate aggression they saw in an adult role model.
Procedure: Children watched an adult act aggressively towards a "Bobo doll" (hitting it with a hammer, shouting at it). Then the children were left alone with the doll.
Findings: Children who saw the aggressive model were much more likely to copy the specific aggressive acts and words. Boys were more physically aggressive than girls.
Conclusion: Behavior can be learned through observation alone.
Charlton et al. (2000) - The St Helena Study
Aim: To see if the introduction of TV would increase aggression in children on a remote island (St Helena).
Procedure: Researchers observed children's behavior on the playground before and after TV arrived on the island.
Findings: There was no increase in aggressive behavior after TV was introduced.
Conclusion: Even if children see aggression on screen (Social Learning Theory), they might not copy it if they live in a close-knit community with good adult supervision.
Memory Tip: Think of Bandura as the "Yes, they copy" study and Charlton as the "No, they don't always copy" study!
Final Checklist for Success:
Did you know? Criminal psychology isn't just about catching "bad guys"; it's about understanding the human mind so we can help prevent crime before it happens!
- Can you explain the difference between Positive Reinforcement and Positive Punishment?
- Can you list the three dimensions of Eysenck’s theory?
- Do you know the difference between the Bandura and Charlton studies?
- Can you explain one strength and one weakness for Token Economies?
You've got this! Psychology is all about patterns. Once you see the patterns in why people act, the theories become much easier to remember.