The self – What makes you who you are?

Welcome to Topic 7: The Self – What makes you who you are?

Ever wondered why you are the way you are? Why do you like certain things, feel confident in some situations but not others, or describe yourself as "kind" or "sporty"? This chapter is all about the self. We will explore how we develop our identity, how our self-esteem grows, and whether we truly have free will over our actions. This topic is part of Paper 2, so let's dive in!

1. Understanding the Self-Concept

Your self-concept is basically the "mental picture" you have of yourself. Two famous psychologists, Lewis and Rogers, had different ways of looking at this.

Lewis (1990): Two levels of the self

Lewis suggested that our sense of self develops in two stages:
1. Existential Self: This is the most basic part. It is the realization that you exist as a separate entity from others. For example, a baby realizes, "I am me, and I can make that toy move."
2. Categorical Self: Once we realize we exist, we start to put ourselves into categories. For example, "I am a boy," "I am tall," or "I am a student."

Rogers (1959): The three parts of self-concept

Carl Rogers believed our self-concept has three main ingredients:
• Self-image: How you see yourself right now (e.g., "I am a good friend"). Note that this isn't always reality!
• Self-esteem: How much you value or like yourself. Is your "inner critic" loud or quiet?
• Ideal self: The person you wish you were or want to become.

Quick Review: Think of it like a mirror. Self-image is the reflection you see, Self-esteem is how you feel about that reflection, and the Ideal self is a photo of who you want to be pinned to the corner of the mirror.

2. The Humanistic Theory of Self

Humanistic psychologists believe humans are basically good and have a natural desire to reach their full potential, which they call self-actualisation.

Congruence and Incongruence

Rogers said that to be happy, our self-image and our ideal self need to be similar.
• Congruence: When your self-image and ideal self overlap a lot. You feel balanced and happy.
• Incongruence: When there is a big gap between who you are and who you want to be. This can lead to unhappiness.

How others affect our self-esteem

Rogers (1951) explained that how parents and teachers treat us matters:
• Unconditional positive regard: Being loved and accepted for who you are, no matter what. This helps build high self-esteem.
• Conditional positive regard: Only being praised when you "do well" (like getting an A*). This creates conditions of worth, where you feel you are only "good enough" if you meet certain rules.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943)

Maslow said we have to meet basic needs before we can reach self-actualisation. Imagine a pyramid:
1. Physical needs: Food, water, sleep.
2. Safety: A home, feeling secure.
3. Love and belonging: Friends, family.
4. Esteem: Feeling respected and successful.
5. Self-actualisation: Becoming the best version of yourself.

Key Takeaway: To be your best self, you need to feel accepted (unconditional regard) and have your basic needs met!

3. Identity and Free Will

Does your identity change as you get older? And are you really in control of your choices?

Erikson (1959): Eight stages of identity

Erikson believed our identity develops in eight stages throughout our whole lives, from birth to old age. At each stage, we face a "crisis" or a challenge. For example, during your teenage years, the challenge is Identity vs. Role Confusion—trying to figure out who you are before becoming an adult.

Baumeister (2008) and Free Will

Free will is the idea that we can choose our own actions. Baumeister argued that believing in free will is very important for society. If we believe we are in control, we act more responsibly. If we think our actions are "destined" or "just genes," we might behave worse.

Did you know? Research suggests that people who believe in free will are often more helpful to others and perform better at work!

4. Internal and External Influences

What actually builds our self-esteem? It's a mix of what’s inside and what’s outside.
• Temperament (Internal): This is the "biological" part of your personality you are born with. Some babies are naturally "easy-going," while others are more "highly strung." This affects how people react to you, which in turn affects your self-esteem.
• Experience (External): Your life events! Successes, failures, the way parents treat you, and even having a pet can shape how you see yourself.

5. Measuring Personality

Psychologists love to measure things, including your personality!

Personality Scales and Types

• Personality Scales: Usually questionnaires where you rate yourself on a scale (e.g., 1 to 5).
• Personality Types: Putting people into distinct "boxes" (e.g., Introvert vs. Extrovert).

Trait Theory

Trait theorists believe personality is made up of stable characteristics called traits.
• Allport (1936): He identified three types of traits:
1. Cardinal traits: Rare, dominant traits that define a person's whole life (e.g., Mother Teresa’s altruism).
2. Central traits: The 5-10 main traits we use to describe someone (e.g., "funny," "smart").
3. Secondary traits: Traits that only appear in certain situations (e.g., getting nervous before a test).
• Cattell (1946) 16PF: Cattell believed Allport’s list was too long! He used a statistical method to narrow personality down to 16 personality factors (the 16PF test).

Memory Aid: Use "Triple-S" for Allport: Super-rare (Cardinal), Standard (Central), and Situational (Secondary).

6. Key Studies you need to know

For Paper 2, you must know these two studies in detail:

Vohs and Schooler (2008) – The Value of Believing in Free Will

Aim: To see if a belief in determinism (the idea that we have no free will) increases cheating.
Procedure: Participants were split into two groups. One group read a text saying we have no free will (determinism). The other group read a neutral text. They then took a math test where they could "cheat" to get the answers.
Findings: The group that read about determinism cheated significantly more!
Conclusion: Believing we don't have free will can lead to less ethical behavior.

Van Houtte and Jarvis (1995) – The Role of Pets

Aim: To see if owning a pet helps the psychosocial development (self-esteem and autonomy) of children.
Procedure: They compared pet owners and non-pet owners aged 8–12.
Findings: Pet owners had higher self-esteem and were more autonomous (independent).
Conclusion: Pets can provide "unconditional positive regard," which helps children feel better about themselves.

Quick Review: Believing you have a choice makes you behave better (Vohs & Schooler), and having a dog or cat can make you feel more confident (Van Houtte & Jarvis)!

Don't forget!

• Avoid this mistake: Don't confuse Self-image (how you see yourself) with Self-esteem (how you feel about that image).
• Check your definitions: Make sure you can explain Congruence clearly—it’s a favorite for exam questions!
• Humanistic view: Remember that this theory focuses on growth and positivity, unlike some other areas of psychology.