Archaeological evidence: coins, inscriptions and monuments

Introduction to Archaeological Evidence

In Ancient History, we don't just rely on books written by ancient authors (literary sources). We also have "physical" evidence that survived from the ground! This chapter explores archaeological evidence, which includes coins, inscriptions on stone, and large monuments or buildings. These sources are vital because they provide a "snapshot" of a moment in time, often showing us how a government or leader wanted to be seen by the public.

Think of it this way: if a literary source like Tacitus is like a critical newspaper article about a celebrity, a coin or a monument is like that celebrity’s own social media post. Both give us different parts of the truth!

1. Inscriptions (Epigraphy)

Inscriptions are words carved into hard surfaces, usually stone or bronze. Because they were often set up in public places, they were meant to be permanent records of laws, treaties, or achievements.

Greek Historical Inscriptions

For the Greek period study (492–404 BC), inscriptions help us understand how the Athenian Empire actually functioned:

• The Serpent Column: A bronze monument set up at Delphi to celebrate the Greek victory over the Persians. It lists the states that fought, which is great evidence for the Hellenic League and its leadership.
• The Chalkis Decree (LACTOR 1): This inscription shows the strict control Athens had over its subject states. It required the people of Chalkis to take an oath of loyalty to the Athenian demos (the people).
• The Thoudippos Decree (LACTOR 16): This is essentially a giant tax list! It shows how much tribute (money) the different cities in the Delian League had to pay to Athens.
• Naqs-e Rustam (LACTOR 16): These are Persian inscriptions from the tombs of Kings Darius and Xerxes. They are crucial because they show the Persian perspective—how they viewed their empire and their right to rule.

Roman Historical Inscriptions

For the Julio-Claudian period (31 BC–AD 68), inscriptions often reveal how the Imperial Cult and administrative changes worked:

• The Res Gestae Divi Augusti (LACTOR 17): This is the most famous inscription in Roman history. Written by Augustus himself, it lists his achievements, his military victories, and the money he spent on the Roman people. It is his "official" version of history.
• The Edicts of Cyrene: These show how Augustus managed the provinces and how he balanced power between himself and the local governors.
• Claudius’ Letter to the Alexandrians (LACTOR 19): This helps us understand Claudius and his relationship with the different religious and ethnic groups in the empire.
• The Pomerium Extension: An inscription marking the religious boundary of Rome, showing how Emperors like Claudius used traditional religious practices to show their power.

Quick Review: Inscriptions are "official" documents. They tell us about laws, taxes, and how leaders wanted to be remembered. However, they rarely mention a leader's failures!

2. Coins (Numismatics)

In the ancient world, there was no internet, television, or newspapers. Most people would never see the Emperor in person. Therefore, coins were the most important tool for mass communication and propaganda.

Why Coins Matter

• Portraits: The image of the ruler on the coin (the "obverse") showed the public what they looked like—or how they wanted to look (e.g., young, strong, or pious).
• Slogans and Symbols: The back of the coin (the "reverse") often featured gods, goddesses, or symbols of victory (like a trophy or a laurel wreath).
• Reaching Everyone: Even the poorest person in a distant province used coins, making them the perfect way to spread a political message.

Key Roman Examples (LACTOR 17 & 19)

The syllabus requires you to look at specific types of coins:

• Aurei (Gold) and Denarii (Silver): Often used to celebrate military victories, such as Augustus' victory at the Battle of Actium.
• Sestertii, As, and Dupondius (Bronze/Copper): These were used in daily life. Augustus used them to show his "restoration of the Republic," while Nero used them to show his building projects, like the Temple of Janus with its doors closed (signalling peace).

Did you know? When an Emperor was overthrown or hated, sometimes his image on coins was scratched out. This was a way of "erasing" him from history!

3. Monuments and Building Programmes

Large-scale building projects were not just about making a city look nice; they were massive statements of power, stability, and wealth.

Augustus and Rome

Augustus famously claimed he "found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble."

• Augustan Building Programme: He built temples, theatres, and forums. This supported the revival of traditional Roman values and showed the people that the principate (his rule) brought prosperity.
• Triumphal Arches: These celebrated specific military achievements and reminded the Senate and people who was in charge.

The Other Julio-Claudians

• Claudius’ Harbour at Ostia (LACTOR 19): This was a massive engineering project to ensure Rome's food supply. It showed Claudius as a practical ruler who cared for the ordinary people of Rome.
• Nero’s Golden House (Domus Aurea): After the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, Nero built a massive palace. This is a point of conflict in the sources—was he rebuilding the city for the people, or for his own luxury?

Key Takeaway: Monuments are "visual propaganda." They show an Emperor's ability to provide for the people and his connection to the gods.

4. Using Archaeological Evidence in Exams (AO3 Skills)

In your exam, specifically for Question 2 (the source-based mini-essay), you must use archaeological evidence alongside literary sources. This is called AO3 (using, analysing, and evaluating sources).

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Don't just describe it: Don't just say "there is a coin of Nero." Explain why it matters. What was Nero trying to prove?
• Don't treat it as 100% "True": Just because it's carved in stone doesn't mean it's the whole truth. Augustus' Res Gestae is very biased—he leaves out his mistakes and focuses only on his wins!
• Contrast with Authors: If Suetonius says an Emperor was a failure, but a monument shows him as a great builder, point out that contradiction! This shows the examiner you are thinking critically.

Comparison Example Table

Note: For more details on the specific authors mentioned here, see the chapters on "Set sources for H007/01" and "Set sources for H007/02".

Final Tip: When you see an archaeological source in an exam paper, ask yourself: "Who was meant to see this, and what were they supposed to think after seeing it?"