Getting to Know Your Ancient Witnesses: The Set Sources for H007/01
Welcome to the most important part of your Ancient History toolkit! For your AS Level exam on the Relations between Greek and non-Greek states \(492–404\) BC, you aren't just reading modern textbooks. You are looking at the evidence left behind by the people who lived through (or just after) these incredible events. These are called your set sources.
Think of yourself as a detective. These sources are your witnesses. Some are honest but biased, some are obsessed with details, and some are literally carved in stone. Your job is to understand who wrote them, why they wrote them, and how much we can trust them. This is what the examiners call AO3 (Source Evaluation).
Note: This chapter focuses on the sources for the Greek period study. For the Roman emperors, please see the separate chapter on H007/02 sources.
1. Herodotus: The "Father of History" (and Storytelling)
Herodotus is your main man for the Persian Wars (\(492–479\) BC). He was writing about \(40\) to \(50\) years after the wars ended. He traveled all over the ancient world, asking people what they remembered about the great conflict between the Greeks and the Persian Empire.
What he covers: The expeditions of Mardonius, the Battle of Marathon, the massive invasions by Xerxes, and the famous battles of Salamis and Plataea.
His style and perspective:
- Oral Tradition: Because he wasn't there, he relies on what he "heard" (his name even sounds like "Hear-it-all"). This means he often includes different versions of the same story.
- Focus on "Why": He wanted to know the causes of the war and why the Persians and Greeks hated each other.
- Respect for Persians: Unlike some later Greeks, Herodotus actually shows some respect for Persian bravery, though he believes the Greek way of life (freedom) was superior to Persian "slavery" (obeying a King).
- Themes: He loves the idea of Hubris (arrogance). He portrays Persian Kings like Xerxes as over-reaching their boundaries, which leads to their downfall.
Quick Tip: If a source mentions a dream, an omen, or a colorful story about a King’s conversation, it’s likely Herodotus! He’s great for AO1 knowledge but always ask: "Is this just a good story, or did it really happen?"
2. Thucydides: The "Scientific" Historian
Thucydides picked up where Herodotus left off. He wrote about the Peloponnesian War (\(431–404\) BC), the massive civil war between Athens and Sparta. He was an Athenian General himself, but he was exiled, which gave him the chance to talk to people on the Spartan side too.
What he covers: The Pentecontaetia (the \(50\)-year gap between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars), the growth of the Athenian Empire (the Delian League), the causes of the war, and the shifting alliances between Greek states.
His style and perspective:
- Evidence-Based: He hated "storytelling." He wanted to find the exact truth and looked for patterns in human behavior.
- Power Politics: Thucydides believed the "real" cause of the war was the growth of Athenian power and the fear it caused in Sparta.
- Speeches: He includes long, formal speeches. He admits these aren't word-for-word transcripts; they are what he thought the speakers should have said based on the situation.
- Bias: He is often critical of Athenian democracy and its "demagogues" (leaders who manipulate the crowd), especially after the death of his hero, Pericles.
Key Takeaway: Thucydides is your go-to for the motives of states. He is brilliant for AO2 analysis of why wars start and how alliances break down.
3. Xenophon: The Man Who Finished the Job
Thucydides’ history stops abruptly in the middle of a sentence in \(411\) BC. Xenophon, another Athenian who spent a lot of time with Spartans, decided to finish the story in his work, History of My Times (also called the Hellenica).
What he covers: The final years of the Peloponnesian War (\(411–404\) BC), including the crucial role of Persia in helping Sparta defeat Athens.
His style and perspective:
- Pro-Spartan: Xenophon really liked the Spartan way of life. This can sometimes make him biased toward Spartan leaders like Lysander.
- Simple Style: His writing is more straightforward than Thucydides but sometimes misses the "big picture" of political causes.
- Persian Relations: He provides vital evidence on how the Persians (like Cyrus the Younger) gave money to the Spartans to build a navy, which eventually won them the war.
4. LACTOR 1: The Athenian Empire (Biographers & Comedies)
LACTOR 1 isn't a single author; it’s a collection of shorter snippets from various ancient writers and documents. This is where you get the "flavor" of Athenian life and the details of their empire.
Important Authors in LACTOR 1:
- Plutarch: Writing much later (around AD \(100\)), he wrote biographies of famous men like Pericles, Cimon, and Aristeides. He uses many sources that are now lost to us, but he's more interested in character than strict chronological history.
- Diodorus Siculus: A later historian who provides a "universal history." He is useful for filling in dates and events that Herodotus or Thucydides might have skipped.
- Aristophanes: A comic playwright. Sources like The Acharnians or Peace show us how ordinary Athenians felt about the war. They are funny, but they reveal social attitudes and the economic pain of the war.
- Aristotle: His Politics gives us the "theoretical" side of how Athens controlled its allies.
Quick Review: When using Plutarch, remember he is writing centuries later! He is great for AO1 details about Pericles' building program, but be cautious of his moralizing tone.
5. LACTOR 16 & Archaeological Evidence: The "Hard" Evidence
Sometimes, we don't have to rely on books. We have objects and inscriptions. These are vital because they haven't been edited by a monk or a librarian over centuries—they are exactly as they were when they were made.
The Persian Side (LACTOR 16):
- Naqs-e Rustam Inscriptions: These are the words of the Persian Kings (Darius and Xerxes) themselves. They don't talk about "battles" they lost; they talk about being great kings chosen by their god, Ahuramazda, and listing all the nations that pay them tribute.
- The Xerxes Inscription: Shows the Persian perspective on religion and their right to rule. This is a perfect contrast to Herodotus’ view of the Persians.
The Greek Side (Inscriptions & Monuments):
- The Serpent Column: This was a victory monument set up at Delphi after the Battle of Plataea (\(479\) BC). It lists the names of the Greek states that fought the Persians. It is a rare piece of evidence for Greek unity.
- The Chalkis Decree: An inscription showing how Athens forced a rebellious city (Chalkis) to swear an oath of loyalty. This is "smoking gun" evidence of how harsh the Athenian Empire could be.
- The Thoudippos Decree: A document listing how much tribute (money) every city in the Athenian Empire had to pay. It shows the massive scale of Athenian economic power.
6. Summary of Exam Skills: How to use these sources
In your exam, especially for Question 2 (the mini-essay), you must evaluate the sources. Use this checklist:
1. Who is the author? (e.g., Thucydides was an Athenian general; the Persian King wrote the inscription).
2. When were they writing? (e.g., Herodotus wrote years later; inscriptions are contemporary/at the time).
3. What is their purpose? (e.g., Aristophanes wanted to make people laugh; the Serpent Column was to celebrate a victory).
4. Is it reliable? (e.g., Does Thucydides’ account of the causes of war match the evidence of the inscriptions?).
5. What are the limitations? (e.g., Xenophon might be too pro-Spartan; the Persian inscriptions won't mention their defeats).
Common Mistake to Avoid: Don't just say "Herodotus is biased" or "Inscriptions are always true." You must explain how that bias or why that inscription affects our understanding of the specific event in the question.
Key Takeaway: Always pair a literary source (like Thucydides) with archaeological evidence (like the Thoudippos Decree) whenever possible to show the examiners you have a comprehensive understanding of the evidence!