Introduction to AS Level Issues and Debates
Welcome to one of the most exciting parts of Psychology! While research methods tell us how we do research, Issues and Debates represent the "big questions" that psychologists argue about. These debates help us think critically about the core studies you are learning. Instead of just memorizing what happened in a study, you will start to ask: "Why does this matter?" or "Is this behavior because of the person or the situation?"
In the AS Level syllabus, there are five specific issues and debates you need to know. You should be able to define them and apply them to the 12 core studies. Let’s break them down one by one!
1. Application of Psychology to Everyday Life
This debate looks at how useful psychological research is in the "real world." If a study is useful, it means the findings can be used to improve lives, solve problems, or change how society works.
High Usefulness: A study is useful if it helps us understand behavior in natural settings. For example, Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) helps us understand why people might or might not help a stranger in a public place. This could be used to encourage more "pro-social" behavior.
Low Usefulness: A study might be less useful if it is conducted in a very artificial way (low ecological validity) or if the sample is so specific that it doesn't apply to most people. For example, some might argue that Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) is less "useful" for everyday life because most people don't sleep in a lab with electrodes attached to their heads!
Key Takeaway: Always ask yourself: "How can a teacher, a doctor, a parent, or a police officer use this information?"
2. Individual and Situational Explanations
This is a classic debate about why we behave the way we do. Is it because of who we are, or where we are?
Individual Explanation: This side argues that behavior is caused by a person's unique characteristics, such as their personality, genes, or intelligence.
Example: In the Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) study, the differences in scores are explained by the individual's "Theory of Mind" or whether they have autism. The situation doesn't change the score; the person's internal traits do.
Situational Explanation: This side argues that our behavior is shaped by the environment, the people around us, or the specific circumstances we find ourselves in.
Example: In Milgram (obedience), most participants went to the full \(450\) volts. Milgram argued this wasn't because they were "bad people" (individual), but because they were in a situation where an authority figure in a lab coat was telling them to continue.
Quick Review:
• Individual = Internal (personality, IQ, traits).
• Situational = External (the room, the people, the pressure).
3. Nature versus Nurture
This debate asks if behavior is something we are born with or something we learn after we are born.
Nature: This refers to biological factors. This includes our DNA, hormones, and brain structure.
Example: Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences) suggests that male and female monkeys prefer different toys due to biological differences (hormones), which supports the nature side.
Nurture: This refers to environmental factors. It’s the idea that we are born a "blank slate" and our experiences shape us.
Example: Bandura et al. (aggression) showed that children who watched an adult hit a Bobo doll were more likely to be aggressive themselves. This clearly supports nurture because the behavior was learned through observation.
Memory Aid: Nature is your "Natural" equipment (biology). Nurture is how you were "Nurtured" (raised/taught).
4. The Use of Children in Psychological Research
Psychologists often study children to see how behavior develops, but children are a "vulnerable" group. This means researchers must be extra careful.
Why use children?
• To understand how learning happens (e.g., Bandura et al.).
• To find ways to help children with phobias (e.g., Saavedra and Silverman).
• To see how eyewitness testimony works in youngsters (e.g., Pozzulo et al.).
The Challenges:
• Ethics: Children cannot give "informed consent" themselves; their parents must do it. They may also find research more stressful than adults do.
• Communication: Children might not understand complex questions, so researchers must use simpler language or tools (like the "Feelings Thermometer" in Saavedra and Silverman).
Common Mistake: Don't just say using children is "bad." It is very helpful for science, but it requires higher ethical standards and more creative methods!
5. The Use of Animals in Psychological Research
Sometimes it is not possible or ethical to use humans, so psychologists use animals (like monkeys or elephants) instead.
Why use animals?
• Some procedures are too risky for humans.
• Animals often have shorter lifespans, so we can see development faster.
• In some studies, like Hassett et al., using monkeys allows researchers to control for social variables that are harder to control in humans.
The Rules (Ethics):
• Minimizing Harm: Researchers must cause the least amount of pain or distress possible.
• Numbers: Use the smallest number of animals possible to get valid results.
• Species: Choose a species that is appropriate and will suffer the least. For example, Fagen et al. used positive reinforcement (rewards) to train elephants, which is much more ethical than using punishment.
Key Takeaway: The animal debate is a balance between the cost (harm to the animal) and the benefit (the knowledge gained to help humans or other animals).
How to Use These in Your Exam
When you are asked to "evaluate" a study using an issue or debate, try the Point-Example-Explain method:
1. Point: State the debate (e.g., "The study by Milgram supports the situational explanation of behavior.")
2. Example: Give a specific detail from the study (e.g., "For instance, \(65\%\) of participants obeyed the experimenter and gave the maximum shock of \(450\) volts.")
3. Explain: Connect it back to the debate (e.g., "This suggests that the presence of an authority figure and the prestigious setting of Yale University created a pressure that caused ordinary people to behave cruelly, rather than their own individual personalities.")
Quick Summary Box
• Everyday Life: Is it useful for society?
• Individual vs. Situational: Is it the person or the place?
• Nature vs. Nurture: Is it genes or experience?
• Children: Legal and ethical protection for the young.
• Animals: Balancing scientific gain against animal welfare.