Ethical guidelines (human and animal)

Welcome to Ethical Guidelines in Psychology!

In Psychology, we don’t just care about what we find out; we care deeply about how we find it out. Ethical guidelines are the "moral rulebook" that researchers must follow to ensure that participants (both human and animal) are treated with respect and kept safe. Think of ethics as the "seatbelt" of research—it’s there to protect everyone involved!

In this chapter, we will break down the specific rules you need to know for your Cambridge 9990 exams. Whether you are aiming for an A* or just trying to get your head around the basics, these notes will help you master the ethics of research.

1. Ethical Guidelines for Human Participants

When psychologists work with people, they must balance the need for discovery with the well-being of the participants. Here are the core guidelines you need to know:

Valid Consent (Including Informed Consent)

Participants should know exactly what they are getting into before they agree to take part. This is called informed consent. They should be told the aim of the study and what they will be expected to do. For example, in Andrade (doodling), participants volunteered for a study, though they didn't know they would be tested on memory specifically until later.

Right to Withdraw

Participants must be told that they can leave the study at any time, for any reason, without being punished. They also have the right to withdraw their data after the study is finished. Common Mistake: Students often think that if a participant is paid, they lose the right to withdraw. This is false! Even if they are paid, they can still walk out.

Minimising Harm (and Maximising Benefit)

This is a big one. Researchers must ensure that participants do not suffer any more physical or psychological damage than they would in their normal everyday lives. The goal is to maximise the benefit (gain useful knowledge) while minimising the harm (keeping stress levels low). In Milgram’s (obedience) study, this was a major issue because many participants were visibly distressed.

Lack of Deception

Ideally, researchers should not lie to participants. However, sometimes telling the truth would ruin the study (because people change their behaviour when they know what is being tested). If a researcher must use deception, it must be justified and participants must be told the truth as soon as possible.

Confidentiality and Privacy

Confidentiality means that the researcher should not release any personal details (names, addresses) that could identify the participants. Privacy refers to the right of the participant to not be observed in private places (like their own home) without permission. In Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), the study took place in a public space, which helps with privacy, but participants could not give consent.

Debriefing

After the research is over, the researcher must talk to the participants. They explain the true aim of the study, reveal any deceptions used, and ensure the participant is leaving in the same mental state they arrived in. It’s like a "check-out" process to make sure everyone is okay.

Quick Review: The Human Ethics Checklist

To remember these, try the "C.D.W.P.H." acronym: Consent, Debriefing, Withdrawal, Privacy, Harm.

2. Ethical Guidelines for Animal Research

Psychologists sometimes use animals to understand behaviour that would be impossible or unethical to study in humans. Because animals cannot give consent, the rules focus on welfare and minimising suffering.

Replacement

Researchers should consider whether they can achieve their goal without using animals. For example, could they use a computer model or video footage instead? If an animal is used, it should be because there is no other way to get the data.

Species and Strain

Researchers must choose a species that is appropriate for the study but also one that will suffer the least. For example, using a species with a simpler nervous system is often preferred over using primates unless absolutely necessary. In Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences), Rhesus monkeys were chosen to study sex differences.

Numbers

Psychologists must use the smallest number of animals possible to get reliable results. They shouldn't use 50 animals if 10 would provide the same statistical evidence.

Procedures: Pain, Suffering, and Distress

Researchers must do everything possible to minimise harm. This includes using anaesthetics during surgery and ensuring the animal is not kept in a state of fear or pain for long periods.

Housing

Animals should be kept in environments that suit their natural needs. Social animals (like monkeys or rats) should usually be housed with others to prevent loneliness and stress, unless the experiment requires them to be alone. Cages must be clean and provide enough space.

Reward, Deprivation, and Aversive Stimuli

If a researcher needs to motivate an animal, they should use rewards (like extra treats) rather than deprivation (withholding food or water). If aversive stimuli (like a loud noise or a small shock) are used, they must be at the lowest level possible to get a response. In Fagen et al. (elephant learning), the researchers used positive reinforcement (rewards) to train the elephants, which is much more ethical than using punishment!

Key Takeaway: The "3 Rs" Concept

While the syllabus focuses on the specific categories above, you can remember the spirit of animal ethics with these three words: Replace (don't use animals if you don't have to), Reduce (use fewer animals), and Refine (make the experiment as kind as possible).

3. Ethical Issues and Debates: A Summary

In your exam, you might be asked to evaluate a study based on ethics. Here is a quick way to think about it:

Why do we sometimes break ethical rules?

Sometimes, to gain "High Ecological Validity" (making a study feel like real life), researchers have to break rules. For example, in Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans), the researchers did not get informed consent because they wanted to see how people naturally react to an emergency. If they had asked for permission first, the participants' behaviour would have been fake!

The Cost-Benefit Analysis

Psychologists often weigh the Ethical Cost (how much stress did the participants feel?) against the Scientific Benefit (how much did we learn that could help society?).
\( \text{Scientific Benefit} > \text{Ethical Cost} = \text{Research is usually justified} \)
\( \text{Ethical Cost} > \text{Scientific Benefit} = \text{Research is usually not justified} \)

Don't worry if this seems tricky!

Ethics is often about "shades of grey" rather than black and white. When you write your answers, as long as you can explain why a guideline was met or broken using the terms above, you are on the right track!

Common Mistakes to Avoid:

1. Confusing Privacy and Confidentiality: Remember, Privacy is about where you are and what you are doing; Confidentiality is about who you are and keeping your name out of the results.
2. Forgetting the "Animal" terms: Don't use "Consent" when talking about animals—they can't give it! Instead, talk about "Species," "Housing," and "Minimising pain."
3. Thinking Deception is always "Bad": Deception is often a tool used to prevent demand characteristics (where participants guess the aim and change their behavior). It’s only an ethical problem if it’s not justified or cleared up during debriefing.