2025 IB DP Sports, Exercise and Health Science Practice Paper with Answers

In untrained individuals, stroke volume increases progressively during submaximal exercise up to approximately 40% to 60% of \(VO_2\) max, after which it plateaus. In contrast, heart rate increases linearly with increasing exercise intensity up to its maximum value.

Award 1 mark for the correct option. [1/1]

In a third-class lever, the effort force (applied by the biceps muscle insertion on the radius) is located between the fulcrum (elbow joint) and the load (the dumbbell held in the hand). This type of lever always operates at a mechanical disadvantage but allows for increased speed and range of motion.

Award 1 mark for the correct option. [1/1]

The triple jump is a serial skill because it consists of distinct, sequential discrete phases (hop, step, and jump). It is coactive because competitors perform side-by-side or sequentially without direct physical interference from opponents. It is a closed skill because the environment (runway and sandpit) is highly predictable and stable.

Award 1 mark for the correct option. [1/1]

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) posits that three innate, universal psychological needs must be satisfied for optimal human functioning and intrinsic motivation: Autonomy (the need to feel in control of one's own behavior), Competence (the need to experience mastery and feel effective), and Relatedness (the need to feel connected to others).

Award 1 mark for the correct option. [1/1]

High glycemic index (GI) foods (such as white bread, sports drinks, and jasmine rice) cause a rapid rise in blood glucose levels and a subsequent insulin spike. This rapid rise in insulin and glucose is optimal immediately post-exercise to speed up the rate of muscle glycogen resynthesis.

Award 1 mark for the correct option. [1/1]

This scenario represents Newton's Third Law of Motion (Law of Action and Reaction), which states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The force applied by the athlete's feet to the blocks (action) is met with an equal and opposite force from the blocks onto the athlete's feet (reaction), propelling them forward.

Award 1 mark for the correct option. [1/1]

External imagery involves the athlete visualizing themselves from the perspective of an outside observer (such as a spectator, coach, or camera). Internal imagery, by contrast, is visualizing the execution of a skill from the athlete's own first-person perspective.

Award 1 mark for the correct option. [1/1]

Negative thoughts, worry, and concentration loss are mental symptoms classified as cognitive anxiety (as opposed to somatic anxiety, which refers to physical symptoms like sweating or elevated heart rate). Managing cognitive anxiety is best addressed using cognitive or emotion-focused coping strategies (e.g., cognitive restructuring, self-talk, or relaxation).

Award 1 mark for the correct option. [1/1]

During acute progressive aerobic exercise, systolic blood pressure increases in a linear fashion due to the increase in cardiac output. Diastolic blood pressure, however, remains relatively constant or may decrease slightly due to vasodilation of the arterioles in the active skeletal muscles, which decreases total peripheral resistance.

Award 1 mark for the correct answer (B). No partial marks are available.

A concentric contraction occurs when a muscle shortens under tension. In this case, during the upward phase of a squat, the quadriceps contract concentrically to cause extension at the knee joint.

Award 1 mark for the correct answer (C). No partial marks are available.

The Fitts and Posner model consists of three stages of learning: cognitive, associative, and autonomous. The cognitive stage is characterized by a high number of large errors, a reliance on visual and verbal instructions, and a need to cognitively process the basic mechanics of the skill.

Award 1 mark for the correct answer (C). No partial marks are available.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) posits that there are three basic psychological needs: competence (feeling effective in interacting with the environment), autonomy (feeling in control of one's own behaviors), and relatedness (feeling connected to and cared for by others). Meeting these needs supports intrinsic motivation.

Award 1 mark for the correct answer (A). No partial marks are available.

Cognitive specific imagery involves visualizing the execution of specific motor skills or movements, such as the exact steps of a high jump run-up and takeoff.

Award 1 mark for the correct answer (B). No partial marks are available.

Newton's Third Law of Motion states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. In this case, the action is the force applied by the athlete against the starting blocks, and the reaction is the force applied by the blocks onto the athlete, propelling them forward.

Award 1 mark for the correct answer (C). No partial marks are available.

Dehydration reduces plasma volume, which causes a decrease in stroke volume. To maintain cardiac output, heart rate must increase (cardiovascular strain). Additionally, the reduced blood volume limits heat dissipation via sweat and skin blood flow, leading to an elevated core temperature.

Award 1 mark for the correct answer (B). No partial marks are available.

Emotion-focused coping strategies aim to regulate the emotional and physiological response to stress (such as anxiety or high arousal), rather than attempting to change the stressor itself. Examples include relaxation breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and meditation.

Award 1 mark for the correct answer (C). No partial marks are available.

During prolonged submaximal exercise in a warm environment, cardiovascular drift occurs. Sweat rate increases to cool the body, which reduces blood plasma volume. This reduction in plasma volume leads to a decrease in venous return and stroke volume. To maintain the same cardiac output (\(\text{Cardiac Output} = \text{Stroke Volume} \times \text{Heart Rate}\)), the heart rate must increase progressively. Therefore, stroke volume decreases, heart rate increases, and cardiac output remains relatively constant.

Award [1] for selecting the correct option (A). No partial marks.

During the downward phase of a squat, the knee joint flexes. Gravity is pulling the body down, and the quadriceps femoris group (which are knee extensors) must control this descent by resisting gravity. Therefore, the muscles are active while lengthening, which is an eccentric contraction.

Award [1] for selecting the correct option (B). No partial marks.

According to Fitts and Posner's stages of learning, the cognitive stage is the earliest stage of learning where the athlete is trying to understand the basic requirements of the task. They must focus heavily on the mechanics of the movement, experience frequent errors with high variability, and rely strongly on external feedback (such as a coach's instructions) to correct mistakes.

Award [1] for selecting the correct option (B). No partial marks.

According to Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan), intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity purely for its inherent satisfaction, interest, and enjoyment. The athlete's motivation comes from within (personal satisfaction, sensory pleasure of the water) rather than external pressures or rewards.

Award [1] for selecting the correct option (D). No partial marks.

Visualizing through one's own eyes constitutes 'internal imagery'. Focusing on the physical sensations and muscle tension associated with the action represents a 'kinesthetic focus'. Therefore, this represents internal imagery with a kinesthetic focus.

Award [1] for selecting the correct option (B). No partial marks.

Newton's Third Law of Motion states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The action is the sprinter's force pushing backward against the starting blocks; the reaction is the block's force pushing forward against the feet of the sprinter.

Award [1] for selecting the correct option (C). No partial marks.

Lipids (fats) provide approximately \(9\text{ kcal}\cdot\text{g}^{-1}\) (or \(37\text{ kJ}\cdot\text{g}^{-1}\)), which is more than double the energy density of carbohydrates and proteins (each providing approximately \(4\text{ kcal}\cdot\text{g}^{-1}\) or \(17\text{ kJ}\cdot\text{g}^{-1}\)).

Award [1] for selecting the correct option (C). No partial marks.

Somatic anxiety refers to the physical symptoms of anxiety. Examples include increased heart rate, muscle tension, sweating, and shortness of breath. Symptoms like negative self-talk, fear of failure, and difficulty concentrating are cognitive (mental) symptoms of anxiety.

Award [1] for selecting the correct option (B). No partial marks.

At the same submaximal workload, the oxygen demand is identical. Therefore, both individuals require a similar cardiac output. Because the trained athlete has an increased stroke volume due to adaptations such as cardiac hypertrophy (larger left ventricle) and increased blood volume, they can maintain the required cardiac output with a significantly lower heart rate compared to the untrained individual (cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume).

Award 1 mark for identifying that the athlete will have a lower heart rate and a higher stroke volume, resulting in a similar cardiac output.

The biceps curl acts as a third-class lever system, where the effort (muscle force) is applied between the fulcrum (the elbow joint) and the load (the dumbbell). Specifically, the effort is applied at the anatomical insertion point where the biceps brachii tendon attaches to the radius bone.

Award 1 mark for selecting the correct anatomical location of the effort force application.

A gymnastics vault is classified as a serial skill because it consists of a sequence of distinct discrete elements performed in a specific, rapid order (run-up, hurdle, takeoff, block, rotation/flight, and landing). It is classified as a closed skill because the performer is in a stable, predictable, and self-paced environment where the apparatus and conditions do not change.

Award 1 mark for the correct classification of a gymnastics vault as a serial and closed skill.

Self-Determination Theory suggests individuals have three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy is the need to feel in control of one’s own behavior and goals. Allowing an athlete to choose their own warm-up routine from a selection of options satisfies this need. Option B relates to extrinsic rewards. Option C satisfies relatedness. Option D satisfies competence.

Award 1 mark for identifying the correct application of the need for autonomy.

Newton's Third Law of Motion states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. If the sprinter exerts a force (action) of 800 N backward and downward on the blocks, the blocks must exert an equal force (reaction) of 800 N in the opposite direction (forward and upward) onto the sprinter.

Award 1 mark for identifying the reaction force as equal in magnitude (800 N) and opposite in direction (forward and upward) acting on the sprinter.

For endurance athletes preparing for prolonged exercise like a marathon, carbohydrate loading or high daily carbohydrate intake (around 60% to 70% of total daily energy intake) is recommended. This optimizes the storage of muscle and liver glycogen, which serves as the most efficient substrate for ATP production during sustained, higher-intensity aerobic exercise.

Award 1 mark for selecting the option describing the high carbohydrate recommendation and its purpose in maximizing glycogen storage.

(a) HIIT group increase = \(44.2 - 38.5 = 5.7\) \(ml \cdot kg^{-1} \cdot min^{-1}\). CET group increase = \(41.8 - 39.1 = 2.7\) \(ml \cdot kg^{-1} \cdot min^{-1}\). Therefore, the training method with the greater absolute increase is HIIT.

(b) Percentage increase = \(\frac{\text{Post-training} - \text{Pre-training}}{\text{Pre-training}} \times 100\)
\(\text{Percentage increase} = \frac{44.2 - 38.5}{38.5} \times 100 = \frac{5.7}{38.5} \times 100 = 14.81\%\) (accept 14.8%).

(c) Before training, both groups demonstrated similar variability in \(VO_2\) max as indicated by overlapping standard deviations (HIIT: 3.2 vs CET: 3.5), suggesting comparable fitness homogeneity. After training, the standard deviations for both groups decreased slightly (HIIT to 2.9, CET to 3.1), indicating that the participants' fitness levels became slightly more clustered/consistent within each group.

(d) HIIT stimulates several physiological adaptations that enhance oxygen delivery and utilization:
1. Cardiovascular: Increased maximal stroke volume due to increased left ventricular volume/contractility, which increases maximal cardiac output.
2. Capillarization: Increased capillary density surrounding skeletal muscle fibers, reducing diffusion distance and enhancing \(O_2\) exchange.
3. Cellular/Metabolic: Increased size and density of mitochondria and elevated activity of oxidative enzymes (e.g., citrate synthase), allowing for more efficient ATP resynthesis via aerobic pathways.

(e) A major limitation is the threat of maturation or history (external factors). Without a true non-training control group, it is difficult to isolate whether the improvements were purely due to the training intervention or external variables (e.g., changes in daily physical activity, diet, or lifestyle). Additionally, participants may show improvement on the post-test due to a learning/test-retest effect from familiarity with the maximal exercise testing protocol.

(a) Award [1] for identifying HIIT.

(b) Award [1] for correct working/formula:
\(\frac{44.2 - 38.5}{38.5} \times 100\) OR \(\frac{5.7}{38.5}\)
Award [1] for correct final answer: 14.8% or 14.81% (accept 15% if working is correct).

(c) Award [1] for evaluating pre-training variability (e.g., standard deviations are similar/suggest similar homogeneity at baseline).
Award [1] for evaluating post-training changes (e.g., both standard deviations decreased, indicating more consistent/homogenous fitness levels following training).

(d) Award [1] per valid physiological adaptation discussed, up to [3 max]:
- Increased stroke volume / left ventricular hypertrophy / cardiac output [1].
- Increased skeletal muscle capillary density [1].
- Increased mitochondrial size/number/density [1].
- Increased aerobic/oxidative enzyme activity [1].
- Increased plasma volume / red blood cell volume [1].

(e) Award [1] for identifying a valid limitation of a pre-post design and [1] for outlining its effect in this context, up to [2 max]:
- Lack of a control group [1] means external confounding variables (e.g., lifestyle, diet, maturation) cannot be ruled out [1].
- Learning/habituation effect [1] where familiarity with the physiological test protocol itself might lead to spurious performance increases on the post-test [1].

(a) Athlete B has a higher RFD because they generate a high force in a much shorter period of time.

(b) \(\text{RFD} = \frac{\text{Peak Force}}{\text{Time to Peak Force}}\)
Time to Peak Force for Athlete B = 140 ms = 0.14 s.
\(\text{RFD} = \frac{1850}{0.14} = 13214.29\) \(N \cdot s^{-1}\) (Accept 13214 to 13215 \(N \cdot s^{-1}\) or 13.2 \(kN \cdot s^{-1}\)).

(c) Athlete A demonstrates a force-dominant profile: they produce a higher peak absolute force (2100 N vs 1850 N) but require a longer time (220 ms) to express it. Athlete B demonstrates a velocity/power-dominant profile: they produce slightly lower absolute force but do so much faster (140 ms), achieving a higher rate of force development and a higher jump height (52.2 cm vs 48.5 cm).

(d) During the eccentric phase of the countermovement, the active skeletal muscles are stretched, storing elastic strain energy in the series elastic components (tendons and muscle cross-bridges). This stored energy is immediately released during the subsequent concentric phase, boosting the net mechanical work. Additionally, the rapid stretch triggers the stretch reflex via muscle spindles, sending feedback to the spinal cord that increases motor unit recruitment and firing frequency during the explosive concentric contraction.

(e) During plantarfexion in the take-off phase, the ankle joint acts as a second-class lever. The fulcrum (pivot) is located at the metatarsophalangeal joints (ball of the foot), the load (body mass/resistance) acts downward through the tibia (mid-foot), and the effort (muscle force) is applied upwards at the calcaneus (heel) via the contraction of the gastrocnemius/soleus muscles. This lever system provides a mechanical advantage, allowing the muscles to generate the high forces necessary to project the body's mass upward.

(a) Award [1] for identifying Athlete B.

(b) Award [1] for correct conversion of time to seconds (0.14 s) or correct formula substitution:
\(\frac{1850}{0.14}\)
Award [1] for correct calculation of 13,214.29 \(N \cdot s^{-1}\) (accept 13,214 to 13,215, must include correct units of \(N \cdot s^{-1}\) or \(kN \cdot s^{-1}\)).

(c) Award [1] for characterizing Athlete A (higher peak force, slower development, force-dominant) [1].
Award [1] for characterizing Athlete B (lower absolute force, faster rate of development, velocity/power-dominant, resulting in higher jump) [1].

(d) Award [1] per valid mechanism of the SSC described, up to [3 max]:
- Storage of elastic strain energy during the eccentric contraction/phase [1].
- Recovery/release of elastic energy during the rapid concentric phase to increase total force/power [1].
- Activation of the stretch reflex / muscle spindles [1], which increases motor unit recruitment/neural drive [1].
- Amortization phase must be short to prevent energy loss as heat [1].

(e) Award [1] for identifying plantarfexion as a second-class lever system (accept references to third-class if correctly contextualized for speed/range of motion, but second-class is standard) [1].
Award [1] for identifying the roles of the components: fulcrum (ball of the foot), load (body weight), effort (gastrocnemius/calf muscle pulling on the heel) [1].

(a) Group A (100% feedback frequency) resulted in better performance, having a lower mean error (12.4 cm) than Group B (15.1 cm).

(b) During the retention test, Group B performed significantly better than Group A, exhibiting a much lower mean error (10.2 cm compared to Group A's 18.6 cm). Furthermore, Group A's performance deteriorated significantly from acquisition to retention (error increased by 6.2 cm), whereas Group B's performance actually improved from acquisition to retention (error decreased by 4.9 cm).

(c) According to the guidance hypothesis, high-frequency feedback (e.g., 100%) acts as a continuous guide, allowing performers to achieve high performance during practice but making them dependent on external feedback. This blocks the development of intrinsic error-detection and correction mechanisms. When feedback is removed during retention, performance collapses (Group A). In contrast, low-frequency feedback (e.g., 33%) encourages cognitive engagement and forces the learner to process intrinsic feedback, leading to superior long-term retention (Group B).

(d) Faded feedback is a strategy where a coach initially provides a high frequency of feedback (e.g., near 100%) during the cognitive stage of learning when the athlete needs direction. As the athlete's performance stabilizes and they transition into the associative stage, the coach systematically decreases (fades) the frequency of feedback, encouraging independent error-detection.

(e) Performance is a temporary, observable behavior during a practice session (measured by the acquisition phase error). Learning is a relatively permanent change in the capability to perform a skill, which can only be assessed after a rest interval when feedback is withdrawn (measured by the 24-hour retention test).

(a) Award [1] for stating Group A (or 100% feedback).

(b) Award [1] for stating that Group B performed better/had less error than Group A during retention [1].
Award [1] for contrasting their trends (Group A's performance degraded from acquisition to retention, whereas Group B's performance improved/remained stable) [1].

(c) Award [1] per valid point explaining the guidance hypothesis, up to [3 max]:
- High-frequency feedback guides the performer but acts as a crutch/dependency [1].
- Performer fails to develop intrinsic feedback / error-detection mechanisms [1].
- Lower feedback frequency forces active cognitive processing / self-correction [1].
- Explains the drop in Group A or the superiority of Group B in the absence of feedback during the retention test [1].

(d) Award [1] for defining faded feedback (high initial frequency systematically reduced) [1].
Award [1] for connecting the fade to the progression of learning stages (e.g., cognitive to associative) or stability of performance [1].

(e) Award [1] for defining performance (temporary, fluctuating behavior observed during practice) [1].
Award [1] for defining learning (relatively permanent change in skill capability, evaluated through retention/transfer tests) [1].

### Part (a) Cardiac Output Comparison
- **At Rest**:
- Cardiac output (\(Q\)) is approximately the same for both trained and untrained individuals (around 5 L/min).
- However, the trained athlete achieves this through a lower resting heart rate (bradycardia) combined with a larger resting stroke volume (due to cardiac hypertrophy/increased left ventricular volume).
- **During Maximal Exercise**:
- Cardiac output is significantly higher in the trained athlete (up to 30–40 L/min) compared to the untrained individual (around 20–22 L/min).
- This difference is primarily driven by the trained athlete's substantially larger maximal stroke volume. Maximal heart rate remains similar (or slightly lower) between both individuals.

### Part (b) Control of Ventilation
- **Neural Mechanisms (Onset of Exercise)**:
- **Central Command**: The motor cortex of the brain sends signals to the active muscles and simultaneously stimulates the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata to increase breathing rate and depth before/at the immediate start of exercise (anticipatory rise).
- **Proprioceptors**: Sensory receptors in active muscles, tendons, and joints detect movement and send immediate afferent feedback to the medulla oblongata to rapidly increase ventilation.
- **Chemical Mechanisms (Progression of Exercise)**:
- **Carbon Dioxide (\(CO_2\)) and pH**: As exercise intensity increases, metabolic activity produces more \(CO_2\) and hydrogen ions (\(H^+\)), which lowers blood pH (increases acidity).
- **Central Chemoreceptors**: Located in the medulla oblongata, these detect increases in \(CO_2\) and decreases in pH within the cerebrospinal fluid.
- **Peripheral Chemoreceptors**: Located in the aortic arch and carotid bodies, these detect changes in blood \(O_2\), \(CO_2\), and \(H^+\) concentrations.
- **Feedback Loop**: Chemoreceptors transmit nerve impulses to the respiratory control center, which increases the rate and depth of breathing (tidal volume) to expel excess \(CO_2\) and restore chemical homeostasis.

### Part (c) Cardiovascular and Metabolic Differences: HIIT vs. Steady-State
- **Cardiovascular Differences**:
- **Heart Rate (HR) Response**: HIIT features a fluctuating heart rate profile (peaks during high-intensity intervals and drops during recovery intervals). Steady-state (SS) features a stable, plateaued heart rate that reaches a steady state (though cardiovascular drift may occur over long durations).
- **Stroke Volume (SV)**: During HIIT work intervals, SV reaches near-maximal levels rapidly due to high venous return. During SS, SV rises to a stable submaximal plateau (around 40-60% of \(VO_2\text{ max}\)) and remains steady.
- **Blood Pressure (BP)**: HIIT causes larger acute spikes in systolic blood pressure during high-resistance intervals due to significant muscular contractions, whereas SS maintains a moderately elevated, stable systolic blood pressure.
- **Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption (EPOC)**: HIIT generates a significantly larger EPOC ("afterburn") compared to SS. This is due to the greater physiological stress, depletion of ATP-PC stores, and elevated body temperature requiring more recovery energy.
- **Metabolic Differences**:
- **Energy Systems**: HIIT relies heavily on anaerobic energy systems (glycolytic and ATP-PC pathways) during the work intervals, leading to rapid lactic acid/hydrogen ion accumulation. SS relies predominantly on aerobic energy pathways (oxidative phosphorylation), maintaining lactate levels below the lactate threshold.
- **Substrate Utilization**: HIIT relies dominantly on carbohydrates (glycogen) as the primary fuel source due to the extreme intensity. SS utilizes a mix of both carbohydrates and lipids (fats), shifting progressively toward fat oxidation as duration increases.
- **Muscle Fiber Recruitment**: HIIT recruits a high percentage of Type IIa and Type IIx (fast-twitch) motor units to produce rapid, high-power outputs. SS recruits predominantly Type I (slow-twitch) muscle fibers, which are highly oxidative and fatigue-resistant.

### Part (a) [Max 4 marks]
- Award 1 mark for noting resting cardiac output is similar/equal (~5 L/min) in both.
- Award 1 mark for explaining that the trained resting state is achieved through a lower resting HR and higher SV.
- Award 1 mark for stating that maximal cardiac output is significantly higher in trained individuals.
- Award 1 mark for explaining that higher maximal cardiac output is due to a substantially larger maximal SV (and not HR).

### Part (b) [Max 6 marks]
*Award up to 3 marks for neural mechanisms and up to 3 marks for chemical mechanisms.*
- **Neural (Max 3 marks)**:
- Award 1 mark for central command/motor cortex sending anticipatory signals to the medulla.
- Award 1 mark for proprioceptors in muscles/joints detecting movement.
- Award 1 mark for linking these signals to an immediate rapid increase in ventilation.
- **Chemical (Max 3 marks)**:
- Award 1 mark for noting that exercise increases blood \(CO_2\) and decreases blood pH (increases acidity).
- Award 1 mark for identifying that central chemoreceptors (medulla) and/or peripheral chemoreceptors (aorta/carotid) detect these changes.
- Award 1 mark for explaining that chemoreceptors signal the respiratory center to increase breathing depth (tidal volume) and frequency.

### Part (c) [Max 10 marks]
*Accept any 10 valid comparative points. Points must contrast HIIT and SS to receive full marks.*
- **Cardiovascular Points (Max 6 marks)**:
- Award 1 mark for contrasting fluctuating HR (HIIT) with stable/plateaued HR (SS).
- Award 1 mark for contrasting high, fluctuating systolic blood pressure (HIIT) with stable, moderate systolic blood pressure (SS).
- Award 1 mark for identifying that HIIT results in a larger EPOC than SS.
- Award 1 mark for stating HIIT challenges/reaches maximal SV during intervals, while SS maintains a consistent, submaximal SV.
- **Metabolic Points (Max 6 marks)**:
- Award 1 mark for contrasting the dominance of anaerobic pathways (HIIT work phases) with aerobic pathways (SS).
- Award 1 mark for contrasting significant lactate accumulation (HIIT) with steady-state lactate levels below threshold (SS).
- Award 1 mark for contrasting high carbohydrate dependency (HIIT) with higher fat oxidation/mixed substrate use (SS).
- Award 1 mark for contrasting recruitment of Type II/fast-twitch fibers (HIIT) with Type I/slow-twitch fibers (SS).

(a) Percentage change calculation:
\(\text{Percentage change} = \frac{\text{Post-intervention} - \text{Pre-intervention}}{\text{Pre-intervention}} \times 100\)
\(\text{Percentage change} = \frac{865 - 810}{810} \times 100 = \frac{55}{810} \times 100 \approx 6.79\%\) (accept 6.8%).

(b) Physiological mechanism:
1. Living at altitude exposes the body to hypoxia (reduced partial pressure of oxygen in inspired air).
2. This hypoxic stimulus is sensed by cells in the kidneys, which respond by increasing the synthesis and secretion of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO).
3. EPO travels via the bloodstream to the red bone marrow, where it stimulates erythropoiesis (the production of red blood cells/erythrocytes).
4. This leads to an increase in total haemoglobin mass, enhancing the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

(c) Distinction:
- **Live High, Train Low (LHTL):** Athletes live in a hypoxic environment to stimulate red blood cell production but train at or near sea level. This allows them to maintain high training intensity, power output, and neuromuscular adaptations without being limited by the lack of oxygen during exercise.
- **Live High, Train High (LHTH):** Athletes live and train at altitude. While they get the hypoxic stimulus, the training intensity is compromised because the VO2 max is reduced at altitude. Therefore, they cannot train at the same high absolute work rates or speeds as they would at sea level, which can potentially lead to some detraining.

(a) [1 mark max]
- \(6.79\%\) OR \(6.8\%\) [1]

(b) [3 marks max]
- Hypoxic environment / low partial pressure of oxygen stimulates the kidneys [1].
- Kidneys increase the production and release of the hormone erythropoietin / EPO [1].
- EPO stimulates the red bone marrow to increase the production of red blood cells / erythropoiesis, resulting in higher haemoglobin mass [1].

(c) [2 marks max]
- **LHTL** allows athletes to train at sea level where oxygen concentration is normal, meaning training intensity and maximal workloads can be maintained [1].
- **LHTH** requires training in hypoxia where VO2 max is decreased, meaning athletes must train at lower absolute intensities/speeds [1].

(a) Relationship:
- There is a positive correlation/relationship between muscle glycogen concentration and time to exhaustion (endurance capacity) [1].
- Higher muscle glycogen levels allow for prolonged ATP production via aerobic glycolysis, delaying the onset of fatigue and depletion [1].
- For example, the Standard Diet has the lowest glycogen (110 mmol/kg) and the shortest endurance time (95 min), whereas both carbohydrate-loaded protocols substantially increase both glycogen levels (~178-185 mmol/kg) and time to exhaustion (~120-122 min) [1].

(b) Classic 6-day protocol:
- **Days 1-3 (Depletion phase):** Low carbohydrate diet (~10-15% of energy intake) combined with exhaustive exercise to deplete muscle glycogen stores [1].
- **Days 4-6 (Loading phase):** High carbohydrate diet (~70-80% of energy intake) combined with light training (tapering) or rest to promote glycogen supercompensation [1].

(c) Comparison:
- **Advantage of modified 3-day protocol:** Avoids the exhaustive depletion phase, which prevents hypoglycemia, muscle fatigue, irritability, and training disruption. It is much easier for athletes to adhere to physically and psychologically [1].
- **Disadvantage of modified 3-day protocol:** May result in slightly lower peak muscle glycogen concentrations (178 vs. 185 mmol/kg) compared to the classic protocol, which could potentially result in slightly lower overall energy reserve (though the performance difference is minor) [1].

(a) [2 marks max]
- Positive relationship/correlation between muscle glycogen concentration and time to exhaustion / higher glycogen leads to longer performance time [1].
- Quantifies the relationship using data from the table (e.g., standard diet of 110 mmol/kg yields 95 min, while classic loading of 185 mmol/kg yields 122 min) [1].
- Mentions that glycogen acts as a key fuel source during prolonged moderate-to-high intensity exercise / delays fatigue [1].

(b) [2 marks max]
- Days 1-3: Low carbohydrate intake accompanied by heavy/exhaustive exercise to deplete glycogen stores [1].
- Days 4-6: High carbohydrate intake accompanied by tapered/minimal exercise (or rest) to maximize glycogen storage (supercompensation) [1].

(c) [2 marks max]
- **Advantage [1 max]:** Avoids the physical and psychological distress (fatigue, mood swings, risk of injury) associated with the carbohydrate depletion phase / easier to implement into training schedules.
- **Disadvantage [1 max]:** Does not achieve the maximum possible muscle glycogen supercompensation that is stimulated by the preceding depletion phase (as seen by 178 vs 185 mmol/kg).

(a) Physiological indicators from the table:
1. Increased resting heart rate (from 52 to 64 bpm) [1].
2. Increased submaximal blood lactate concentration at 200W (from 2.2 to 3.8 \(\text{mmol}\cdot\text{L}^{-1}\)) [1].
*(Note: POMS scores are psychological/mood state markers, not physiological, so they do not receive marks here.)*

(b) Distinguish between overreaching and overtraining:
- **Overreaching** is a transient, short-term accumulation of training load leading to temporary decrement in performance, which is easily reversed by a short period of recovery (days to a couple of weeks), resulting in a supercompensation effect [1].
- **Overtraining** is a chronic condition caused by a prolonged imbalance between training load and recovery, resulting in persistent performance decrements, physiological and psychological symptoms (like OTS), requiring months of rest and recovery to resolve [1].

(c) Prevention strategies:
- **Periodization of training:** Structuring the training program with built-in recovery weeks, tapering phases, and rest days to prevent cumulative overload [1].
- **Monitoring systems:** Using subjective (e.g., POMS, daily wellness questionnaires, perceived exertion) and objective (e.g., morning resting heart rate, heart rate variability) markers to adjust training loads dynamically [1].
- **Nutritional and hydration support:** Ensuring adequate energy/carbohydrate and fluid intake to match high metabolic demands, avoiding chronic glycogen depletion [1].
- **Active recovery sessions:** Utilizing low-intensity activities (e.g., light swimming or mobility work) to promote circulation and muscular recovery [1].

(a) [2 marks max]
- Increased resting heart rate / elevated resting HR (by 12 bpm) [1].
- Elevated submaximal blood lactate concentration at the same workload (200W) (by 1.6 mmol/L) [1].
*Award 0 marks for POMS scores as they are psychological, not physiological.*

(b) [2 marks max]
- **Overreaching** is short-term/acute overload that requires a short recovery period (days/weeks) and leads to supercompensation [1].
- **Overtraining** is long-term/chronic overload without adequate recovery, leading to prolonged performance decline (weeks/months) and systemic syndrome (OTS) [1].

(c) [2 marks max]
- Implement a structured periodized training plan (with planned recovery phases/tapering) [1].
- Regularly monitor physiological/psychological symptoms of fatigue (e.g. resting heart rate, mood states, sleep) [1].
- Ensure sufficient dietary intake (especially carbohydrates and fluids) [1].
- Include rest days/active recovery sessions [1].

(a)
- Cognitive anxiety starts relatively high (22.4) 48 hours before and increases only slightly/gradually up to the event (to 26.1).
- Somatic anxiety starts low (14.1) 48 hours before and rises sharply/rapidly as the competition approaches, particularly in the final 2 hours (reaching 28.3).

(b)
- Cognitive state anxiety is the mental component of anxiety, characterized by negative expectations, worries, and apprehensive thoughts about performance.
- Somatic state anxiety is the physical component of anxiety, characterized by physiological arousal symptoms such as increased heart rate, muscle tension, sweating, or butterflies in the stomach.

(c)
- Cognitive restructuring/thought stopping: The archer identifies negative thoughts (e.g., \"I am going to miss the target\") and actively replaces them with positive self-talk or task-focused cues (e.g., \"Focus on a smooth release\").
- Imagery/Mental rehearsal: The archer visualizes a successful performance or a calm, controlled environment to redirect mental focus away from worry.

(a) Award [1] for describing cognitive pattern (starts high, stable/slight increase) and [1] for describing somatic pattern (starts low, dramatic/steep increase close to competition).
(b) Award [1] for defining cognitive state anxiety (mental/worry/thought-based) and [1] for defining somatic state anxiety (physiological/physical arousal symptoms).
(c) Award [1] for identifying a valid cognitive strategy (e.g., positive self-talk, imagery, thought stopping) and [1] for describing how it applies to reducing cognitive state anxiety in this high-pressure window.

(a) Intrinsic motivation is the internal drive to participate in an activity for its own sake, for the inherent satisfaction, enjoyment, and challenge it provides (rather than for external rewards).

(b)
Three basic psychological needs:
- Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness (all three must be identified for [1]).

Ways to satisfy two of these needs (Award [1] for each need explained, max [2]):
- Autonomy: The coach can allow players to choose certain drills during training, or involve them in tactical decisions, giving them a sense of control/ownership over their actions.
- Competence: The coach can provide constructive, positive feedback focused on effort and skill mastery, setting realistic but challenging tasks that allow players to experience success and see their own improvement.
- Relatedness: The coach can foster a supportive team environment, encourage peer mentoring, and make every player feel valued and part of the group.

(c)
- Extrinsic rewards can undermine/decrease intrinsic motivation (the overjustification effect).
- When the reward is removed, the athlete's motivation and participation may drop significantly.

(a) Award [1] for defining intrinsic motivation (internal drive/pleasure/satisfaction of the activity itself).
(b) Award [1] for naming all three needs (Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness).
Award [1] for explaining a practical method to satisfy the first chosen need (e.g., choice for Autonomy).
Award [1] for explaining a practical method to satisfy the second chosen need (e.g., mastery-based feedback for Competence).
Award [1] for linking these strategies to an increase in intrinsic motivation.
(c) Award [1] for identifying a valid drawback (e.g., decrease in intrinsic motivation, dependency on rewards, drop-out when rewards cease).

(a)
- P represents Physical: The athlete should assume the physical stance, wear the performance gear (e.g., uniform, shoes), or hold the equipment (e.g., racket) during imagery to mirror the actual physical state.
- E represents Environment: The imagery should take place in the actual environment where competition occurs (e.g., on the court/track) or in a place that closely simulates it (using videos/photos) to make the mental cues highly realistic.

(b)
- Timing dictates that the mental rehearsal of the routine should take exactly the same amount of time as the actual physical execution of the routine.
- The gymnast should not speed up or slow down the sequence in their mind, as real-time simulation strengthens the neural pathways responsible for executing the motor program.

(c)
- Internal imagery perspective is first-person: the athlete visualizes the performance through their own eyes, experiencing the sensations and visual fields as if actually performing.
- External imagery perspective is third-person: the athlete visualizes themselves from the perspective of an outside observer (like watching themselves on a video recording).

(a) Award [1] for correctly identifying and outlining 'Physical' (wearing gear/holding equipment/physical posture).
Award [1] for correctly identifying and outlining 'Environment' (visualizing/being in the actual performance venue).
(b) Award [1] for explaining that timing must match real-time execution (no fast-forwarding or slow-motion).
Award [1] for linking this to the reinforcement of the correct motor program / neural pathways for the gymnast.
(c) Award [1] for defining internal imagery (first-person view/through own eyes).
Award [1] for defining external imagery (third-person view/watching oneself).