Introduction to Key Questions and Practical Investigation

Welcome! In this chapter, we step away from just learning theories in a textbook and look at how they actually work in the real world. We will explore how Learning Theories (like Social Learning Theory and Operant Conditioning) help us understand modern social issues. We will also look at how you, as a psychologist, can conduct your own Practical Investigation using observations. This is where the "science" of psychology comes to life!


1. The Key Question

In your exam, you may be asked to discuss a Key Question. This is a contemporary issue relevant to society that can be explained using the psychological concepts you've learned in Topic 4.

What makes a good Key Question?

A Key Question isn't just an academic debate; it's something people care about today. The syllabus gives us two main examples:

  1. The influence of role models and celebrities on anorexia: Can seeing thin models on TV or social media lead to eating disorders? We can explain this using Social Learning Theory (observation, imitation, and reinforcement).
  2. Treatment programmes for the fear of flying: How can we help people get over phobias? We can explain this using Classical Conditioning (re-learning associations) and treatments like Systematic Desensitisation.

How to discuss the Key Question

When you write about a Key Question, you should:

Step 1: Describe the issue. Explain what the problem is and why it matters to society (e.g., anorexia causes health problems and affects many young people).

Step 2: Apply Learning Theories. Use concepts like vicarious reinforcement (seeing a celebrity rewarded for being thin) or conditioning (associating planes with fear) to explain how the behaviour starts or is maintained.

Quick Tip: Don't worry if this seems tricky! Just remember to keep your answer focused on Learning Theories, not other parts of psychology like biology or personality.


2. The Practical Investigation: Observations

As part of your course, you are required to design and carry out a practical investigation. In Learning Theories, this takes the form of an Observation.

Designing Your Observation

To make an observation scientific, you need a plan. You will usually look for a difference in behaviour between two groups or situations.

  • Behavioural Categories: You cannot just "watch" people. You must decide on specific actions to look for. For example, if you are observing "politeness," your categories might be "holding a door open" or "saying thank you."
  • Coding: This is when you give a code or a tally to every time a behaviour from your categories happens.

Gathering Data

You need to gather two types of data to get a full picture:

1. Quantitative Data: This involves tallying. You count how many times a behaviour happens. It’s great for making charts and doing math!

2. Qualitative Data: This involves taking notes or descriptions of what you see. It provides "rich" detail that numbers can't show.

Sampling Techniques

Psychologists use specific ways to decide when to record behaviour:

Event Sampling: You record every single time a specific event (like a "thank you") happens.

Time Sampling: You only record what is happening at set intervals (e.g., every 30 seconds).


3. Analysing Your Results

Once you have your data, you need to make sense of it. This involves both Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics.

Quantitative Analysis

You will use descriptive statistics (like means or percentages) and graphs (like bar charts) to show your tally results. However, to see if your results are actually significant, you use the Chi-Squared test.

The Chi-Squared Test \( (\chi^2) \)

We use Chi-Squared when:

  • We are looking for a difference between groups.
  • The data is nominal (in categories/tallies).
  • The design is independent groups.

The formula for Chi-Squared is: \( \chi^2 = \sum \frac{(o - e)^2}{e} \)

(Where \( o \) is the observed value and \( e \) is the expected value).

Qualitative Analysis

For your notes and descriptions, you use Thematic Analysis. This involves looking through your data to find recurring "themes" or patterns. For example, if you observed children playing, a theme might be "cooperation" or "imitation of adults."


4. Ensuring Scientific Status

To make your practical investigation high quality, you must consider these scientific "must-haves":

  • Reliability: Would another researcher get the same results? Using two observers (Inter-rater reliability) helps check this.
  • Validity: Are you measuring what you claim to measure? Using clear behavioural categories helps improve internal validity.
  • Objectivity: You must stay neutral and not let your own feelings influence the tallies.
  • Replicability: Can someone else follow your "recipe" and repeat the study exactly?

Key Takeaway Summary

The Key Question applies learning theories to real-world issues like role models and anorexia. The Practical Investigation involves using structured observations to gather quantitative (tallies) and qualitative (notes) data. We use Thematic Analysis for words and the Chi-Squared test for numbers to see if our findings are scientific and meaningful.