Why language varies and changes: views and explanations

Welcome to Language Diversity and Change: Views and Explanations

Welcome to your study guide for Paper 2 Section A (Language Diversity and Change) of the AQA A-Level English Language (7702) course. In the exam, you will write a 30-mark evaluative essay (taking roughly 45 minutes), where you will be assessed on two key criteria:

• AO1: Applying accurate linguistic methods and terminology with coherent expression.
• AO2: Demonstrating critical knowledge of linguistic concepts, theories, and debates.

Don't worry if this topic feels vast at first! English is not a fixed, rigid museum piece; it is a living system constantly shaped by technology, migration, identity, and social attitudes. Let's break down the major debates, theories, and models into clear, manageable steps.

1. The Great Debate: Prescriptivism vs. Descriptivism

Whenever language changes, people have strong feelings about it. Linguists divide these reactions into two main camps:

1. Prescriptivism:
This view believes that there is one "correct" and superior form of English (often Standard English with Received Pronunciation). Prescriptivists view deviations, slang, and modern changes as errors, decay, or a breakdown of standards.

2. Descriptivism:
This is the objective, scientific approach used by linguists. Descriptivists do not judge language as "good" or "bad"; instead, they record, describe, and analyse how language is actually used across different social contexts without enforcing strict rules of correctness.

Jean Aitchison’s Metaphors of Language Anxiety (1996 / 2013)

Linguist Jean Aitchison categorised three popular prescriptivist myths about language decay and showed why they are scientifically incorrect:

• The Damp Spoon Syndrome:
The Myth: Language change happens because people are lazy or sloppy (like leaving a damp spoon in a bowl of sugar).
The Linguistic Reality: Speech changes like glottal stops or sound assimilations require precise muscular coordination. Seeking communicative efficiency is a natural human trait, not laziness.

• The Crumbling Castle View:
The Myth: The English language was once a glorious, perfect castle in the past (such as during the 18th or 19th century) that is now falling apart.
The Linguistic Reality: There was never a single historical moment when English was "perfect". Language must adapt to remain functional.

• The Infectious Disease View:
The Myth: "Bad" grammar and slang spread like a contagious illness that catches people against their will.
The Linguistic Reality: People pick up linguistic changes consciously or unconsciously to signal identity, fit into social groups, or build rapport.

Progress vs. Decay: The Complaint Tradition

Is change a step forward or a decline?

• Otto Jespersen (Progress View): Argued that language change is driven by efficiency, streamlining, and ease of communication (e.g., shedding cumbersome inflections to make communication faster).
• The "Complaint Tradition" (Lynne Truss / John Humphrys): Popular commentators argue that digital communication, text speak, and loose punctuation erode standards and degrade the clarity of the English language.

Key Takeaway: In your exam essays, avoid adopting a prescriptivist tone. Never call a feature "bad grammar" or "sloppy." Instead, explain why a feature occurs and analyse the attitudes surrounding it.

2. Theoretical Models: How and Why Language Changes

Linguists have developed specific models to explain the internal and external forces that drive change:

Functional Theory (Michael Halliday)

Michael Halliday proposed that language changes in response to the needs of its users. When new technologies, cultural shifts, or social realities appear, language adapts by creating new words. When things become obsolete, words fall out of use. For example, the rise of digital platforms required the invention of terms like app, tweet, and stream.

Substratum Theory

Language changes through contact with other languages and dialects. This happens through immigration, trade, historical invasions, and globalisation. When speakers of different languages interact, features from one language influence another (seen in historical borrowings and modern multi-ethnic urban dialects).

Random Fluctuation Theory (Charles Hockett)

Charles Hockett argued that language changes due to unpredictable events, slips of the tongue, mishearings, and unstable social fads. Language is not a perfectly planned machine; small accidents and unpredictable trends constantly introduce variations.

Spread of Change Models: How Innovations Move

• The S-Curve Model (Chen / Jean Aitchison):
Describes the speed of language change. An innovation starts slowly among a small group of speakers, accelerates rapidly through the wider community once it reaches critical mass, and then decelerates as it approaches universal adoption.

• The Wave Model (Johannes Schmidt / C-J. Bailey):
Describes the geographical and social spread of change. A linguistic innovation starts at a central point (an epicentre) and radiates outwards like ripples in a pond. As the ripples spread further from the source, they lose energy and influence.

Processes of Lexical and Semantic Change

When new words (neologisms) or new meanings enter the language, they do so through specific word-formation processes:

• Coinage: Inventing a completely new word from scratch.
• Borrowing / Loan Words: Incorporating words directly from other languages.
• Compounding: Joining two whole words together (e.g., laptop).
• Blending: Merging parts of two words together (e.g., brunch from breakfast + lunch).
• Clipping: Shortening a polysyllabic word (e.g., phone from telephone).
• Acronyms & Initialisms: Words formed from initial letters (Acronyms are pronounced as a word; Initialisms are pronounced letter-by-letter).
• Conversion / Functional Shift: Changing a word's word class without adding an affix (e.g., using the noun text as a verb: to text).
• Affixation / Derivation: Adding prefixes or suffixes (e.g., unfriend).
• Semantic Shifts:
- Broadening: A word expands its meaning to encompass more concepts.
- Narrowing: A word's meaning becomes more specific.
- Amelioration: A word develops a more positive meaning over time.
- Pejoration: A word takes on a more negative or derogatory meaning.
- Metaphorical Extension: A word acquires a new meaning through physical or abstract comparison.

Key Takeaway: Language change is not chaotic; it follows identifiable mechanisms (Halliday's functional needs, Chen's S-curve, Schmidt's wave model, and standard lexical formation processes).

3. Language Diversity: Variation, Social Identity, and Levelling

Language does not just change through time; it varies right now across different places, social classes, and peer groups.

Standardisation: Einar Haugen’s 4-Stage Model

How did one regional dialect become Standard English? Einar Haugen identified four stages in the standardisation process:

1. Selection: Choosing a specific variety to serve as the standard (historically the East Midlands/London dialect used by the court, universities, and commerce).
2. Codification: Establishing fixed rules for spelling, vocabulary, and grammar through dictionaries (e.g., Samuel Johnson, 1755) and grammar books (e.g., Robert Lowth, 1762).
3. Elaboration: Expanding the standard variety so it can be used across all official domains (law, science, literature, government).
4. Implementation / Acceptance: Promoting and enforcing the variety across society via education, print media, and institutions until it achieves widespread social prestige.

Memory Aid for Haugen's 4 Stages: S-C-E-I ("Some Cats Eat Insects" = Selection, Codification, Elaboration, Implementation).

Social Stratification and Prestige: William Labov

William Labov showed that pronunciation is deeply linked to social status and identity:

• Martha’s Vineyard (1963): Labov studied how local fishermen on a Massachusetts island exaggerated their traditional vowel pronunciations (centralising diphthongs). They did this unconsciously to distinguish themselves from summer tourists and signal their local island identity—a demonstration of covert prestige (valuing non-standard features for local belonging).
• New York Department Stores (1966): Labov studied the pronunciation of the post-vocalic /r/ across three department stores of different social standings (Saks, Macy's, S. Klein). Middle-class speakers showed the greatest shift towards standard prestige forms in formal contexts, demonstrating social stratification and the pull of overt prestige (socially acknowledged status).

Modern UK Diversity: Dialect Levelling vs. MLE

• Dialect Levelling (Paul Kerswill):
A process where regional differences between accents and dialects flatten and diminish over time. Kerswill attributes this reduction in local features to increased geographical mobility, social mobility, urbanization, and broader media exposure.

• Multicultural London English (MLE) (Sue Fox, Paul Kerswill, Efrat Levon):
While some regional dialects are levelling, innovative multi-ethnic dialects are thriving. MLE is an ethnolect and sociolect that arose in multi-ethnic, inner-city London areas. It features innovative phonology, vocabulary (e.g., bare, peng), and grammar (such as using innit as an invariant question tag).

4. Global Englishes: World Varieties and Lingua Franca

English is spoken globally by over a billion people, creating distinct regional standards and international varieties.

Braj Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles Model (1985)

Braj Kachru visualised the global spread of English into three distinct circles:

1. The Inner Circle:
• Regions: UK, USA, Australia, Canada, New Zealand.
• Status: English as a Native Language (ENL).
• Role: Traditionally viewed as norm-providing (setting the grammatical rules and standards).

2. The Outer Circle:
• Regions: India, Nigeria, Singapore, Ghana.
• Status: English as a Second Language (ESL), often shaped by colonial history and institutionalised in government, law, and education.
• Role: Increasingly norm-developing (creating their own valid regional standards).

3. The Expanding Circle:
• Regions: China, Japan, Brazil, Germany.
• Status: English as a Foreign Language (EFL), used for business, travel, and international relations.
• Role: Traditionally norm-dependent (looking to Inner Circle standards for guidance).

English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)

Linguists like Jennifer Jenkins and David Crystal highlight that English functions today as a global Lingua Franca (a common bridge language between speakers who share no native tongue). In ELF contexts, the main goal is functional communication and mutual intelligibility, rather than mimicking British or American Inner-Circle idioms.

Key Takeaway: Global English is no longer owned solely by Inner-Circle speakers. Varieties develop their own systematic norms that fit their cultural and communicative needs.

5. Exam Strategies, Pitfalls, and Quick Review

Common Mistakes to Avoid in Paper 2 Section A

• The "Theorist Dump": Never write a list of theorist names without connecting them directly to the question statement. Always explain how their model supports or challenges the essay prompt.
• Adopting a Prescriptivist Tone: Never write that a word or dialect is "bad," "incorrect," or "lazy." Evaluate features through linguistic terminology (e.g., overt/covert prestige, dialect levelling, functional adaptation).
• Confusing Accent and Dialect:
- Accent refers exclusively to phonology (pronunciation and sound).
- Dialect refers to lexis (words) and grammar (syntax and morphology).

Quick Review Summary Table

• Jean Aitchison: Refuted prescriptivist decay myths (Damp Spoon, Crumbling Castle, Infectious Disease).
• Michael Halliday: Functional Theory (language changes to meet user needs).
• Charles Hockett: Random Fluctuation Theory (change driven by errors and unpredictable fads).
• Chen / Aitchison: S-Curve Model (slow start, rapid adoption, final plateau).
• Schmidt / Bailey: Wave Model (ripples spreading outward from an epicentre).
• Einar Haugen: 4 Stages of Standardisation (Selection, Codification, Elaboration, Implementation).
• William Labov: Social stratification, overt prestige, and covert prestige (Martha's Vineyard, NY Department Stores).
• Paul Kerswill: Dialect Levelling (loss of regional diversity) and MLE (innovative urban sociolect).
• Braj Kachru: Three Circles of English (Inner = norm-providing, Outer = norm-developing, Expanding = norm-dependent).
• Jennifer Jenkins / David Crystal: English as a Lingua Franca (focus on international intelligibility).