2023 Cambridge IGCSE Geography (0460) Practice Paper with Answers

Infant mortality rate refers to the number of deaths of babies under the age of one year per 1,000 live births in a population per year.

Ideas such as:
- Number of deaths of infants / children under 1 year of age / under 12 months; [1]
- Per 1000 live births (per year / annually); [1]

[2 @ 1 mark]

The range of a good or service is the maximum distance that people are prepared to travel in order to purchase or access that specific item or service.

Ideas such as:
- The maximum / furthest distance; [1]
- That people / customers / consumers are willing / prepared to travel to purchase or use a good / service; [1]

[2 @ 1 mark]

The dependency ratio is the mathematical relationship or ratio between the non-working dependent population (those under 15 and over 64 years old) and the economically active working-age population (those aged 15 to 64).

Ideas such as:
- Comparison / ratio / proportion between the dependent population (under 15 and/or over 64/65) / non-working population; [1]
- And the economically active population / working population (aged 15 to 64); [1]

Note: Allow full 2 marks for a fully correct formula: \( \frac{\text{Population } <15 + \text{Population } >64}{\text{Population } 15-64} \times 100 \).

[2 @ 1 mark]

Counter-urbanisation is the demographic and social process in which people migrate from large urban areas and cities into rural areas, villages, or smaller country towns.

Ideas such as:
- Movement / migration / relocation of people; [1]
- From urban areas / cities / large towns to rural areas / villages / countryside; [1]

Note: Do not credit movement from inner city to suburbs (suburbanisation).

[2 @ 1 mark]

To explain the difference in the rate of natural population increase between Country X and Country Y:

1. Calculate / identify the natural increase: Country X has a natural increase of \(38 - 11 = 27\text{ per } 1000\) (or 2.7%), whereas Country Y has a natural increase of \(10 - 10 = 0\text{ per } 1000\) (or 0.0%).
2. Explain high birth rate in Country X: High fertility is driven by early marriage, limited access to or knowledge of family planning/contraception, religious or cultural traditions favouring large families, need for children as farm labour, and high infant mortality encouraging more births.
3. Explain lower death rate relative to birth rate in Country X: Improvements in clean water, basic vaccination, and sanitation have reduced death rates, but birth rates remain high.
4. Explain low birth rate in Country Y: Increased female education and careers, widespread availability of family planning, delayed age of marriage/childbearing, high cost of raising children, and pensions reducing reliance on children in old age lead to a low birth rate equal to the death rate.

Ideas such as:
- Rate of natural increase is higher in X because birth rate is much higher than death rate / natural increase is 27 per 1000 in X compared to 0 per 1000 in Y / birth rate is 38 in X compared to 10 in Y (1 mark max for accurate comparative data);
- Lack of access to / knowledge of contraception / family planning in X (exp);
- High infant mortality rate leads to parents having replacement children in X (exp);
- Children needed for agricultural work / domestic chores / caring for younger siblings in X (exp);
- Children act as security / support for elderly parents in X due to lack of pensions (exp);
- Early marriage / lower status / lack of education for women in X leads to longer childbearing years (exp);
- Cultural / religious traditions encouraging large family size in X (exp);
- In Y, women pursue careers / higher education so delay having children (exp);
- High cost of raising / educating children in Y encourages smaller families (exp);
- Availability of state pensions in Y removes economic need for children (exp).

Note: Allow credit for developed explanation points (exp).
Allocation: 5 @ 1 mark or development (Max 1 mark for comparative data).

The relationship can be explained by analyzing the hierarchy concepts:

1. Correlation between size and order of services: As settlement size/population increases (e.g. from 1,200 in Village C to 450,000 in City A), the order and specialization of services provided increases (e.g. from basic convenience stores/primary schools to universities and specialist hospitals).
2. Threshold population: High-order services (like universities or specialist hospitals) require a large threshold population to be economically viable and make a profit, which only large settlements or regional catchments can support.
3. Sphere of influence: High-order goods and services have a high range (the maximum distance people are willing to travel to use them), meaning large settlements have a much larger sphere of influence (80 km for City A vs 4 km for Village C).
4. Frequency of use: Low-order services (convenience stores, primary schools) are needed frequently on a daily/weekly basis, so people travel short distances, leading to smaller spheres of influence for villages/small towns.

Ideas such as:
- Positive correlation / as settlement size increases, the order of services increases / the sphere of influence increases (or vice versa);
- Larger settlements have larger populations to meet the threshold population required for high-order / specialized services (exp);
- High-order services (e.g., university, specialist hospital) are expensive / require specialized staff so need large catchment populations to be viable (exp);
- People are willing to travel greater distances / high range of goods for specialized / comparison goods / high-order services in larger settlements (exp);
- Low-order services (e.g., convenience store, primary school) provide everyday / convenience goods so people only travel short distances (exp);
- Smaller settlements have a smaller threshold population so can only sustain low-order services (exp);
- Support using comparative evidence from Fig. 2.1 (e.g., Regional City A has a sphere of influence of 80 km compared to 4 km for Village C / City A has university whereas Village C only has primary school) (Max 1 mark for data/evidence).

Note: Allow credit for developed explanation points (exp).
Allocation: 5 @ 1 mark or development (Max 1 mark for source evidence).

Candidates should name a country experiencing high natural population increase (e.g. China, Bangladesh, Kenya, Nigeria, India) and describe strategies/policies aimed at reducing the birth rate.

Level 1 (1–3 marks):
Simple, generic statements describing methods to reduce birth rates without detailed elaboration or context (e.g. 'Free contraceptives were handed out', 'The government made a law limiting family size', 'People were educated about family planning').

Level 2 (4–6 marks):
Developed statements explaining how strategies work or describing them in detail within the context of the country (e.g. 'The government offered financial incentives such as wage increases and priority housing for families who committed to having only one child', 'Local neighbourhood committees monitored family planning and encouraged women to use IUDs or undergo sterilisation to avoid unauthorised pregnancies').
*Note: Capped at maximum 5 marks if no named example or an inappropriate example is provided.*

Level 3 (7 marks):
Comprehensive answer with at least two developed statements and relevant place-specific detail (e.g. specific policy names such as the One-Child Policy / 1979, specific incentives such as Honorary Certificates / housing priority in Shanghai, specific enforcement mechanisms such as local family planning cadres / Granny Police).

Level 1 (1–3 marks):
1 simple statement = 1 mark
2 simple statements = 2 marks
3 simple statements = 3 marks

Ideas may include:
- Handing out contraception / birth control pills;
- Promoting family planning clinics;
- Running sex education campaigns in schools/media;
- Setting a legal limit on family size;
- Providing financial rewards/fines;
- Raising the legal age of marriage;
- Encouraging female education/careers.

Level 2 (4–6 marks):
1 developed statement = 4 marks
2 developed statements = 5 marks
3 developed statements (or 2 developed with further elaboration) = 6 marks

*Max 5 marks if no named example or inappropriate example.*

Ideas must be developed with cause, effect, or detailed description, such as:
- Offering free intrauterine devices and surgical sterilisations in rural clinics so women have direct access to reliable birth control;
- Providing free primary education and preferential school placement for only the first child to economically discourage larger families;
- Imposing steep economic fines proportional to annual income on families having unauthorised children;
- Raising the minimum legal age of marriage to delay childbearing and shorten the total reproductive window.

Level 3 (7 marks):
Must achieve Level 2 (at least 2 developed points) plus include accurate, place-specific details (e.g. names of specific policies, schemes, dates, local administrative units, or local statistical evidence).

Candidates should name a country experiencing high natural population increase (e.g. China, Bangladesh, Kenya, Nigeria, India) and describe strategies/policies aimed at reducing the birth rate.

Level 1 (1–3 marks):
Simple, generic statements describing methods to reduce birth rates without detailed elaboration or context.

Level 2 (4–6 marks):
Developed statements explaining how strategies work or describing them in detail within the context of the country.
*Note: Capped at maximum 5 marks if no named example or an inappropriate example is provided.*

Level 3 (7 marks):
Comprehensive answer with at least two developed statements and relevant place-specific detail.

Level 1 (1–3 marks):
1 simple statement = 1 mark
2 simple statements = 2 marks
3 simple statements = 3 marks

Level 2 (4–6 marks):
1 developed statement = 4 marks
2 developed statements = 5 marks
3 developed statements (or 2 developed with further elaboration) = 6 marks
*Max 5 marks if no named example or inappropriate example.*

Level 3 (7 marks):
Must achieve Level 2 (at least 2 developed points) plus include accurate, place-specific details.

Destructive waves are characterized by having a stronger backwash than swash, which removes beach material. They also tend to have a tall wave height, steep wave front, short wavelength, and high frequency (breaking at around 10 to 15 waves per minute).

Award 1 mark for each valid characteristic (up to 2 marks):
- Stronger backwash than swash / weak swash / strong backwash;
- Tall wave height / high wave amplitude / steep gradient / steep wave face;
- Short wavelength;
- High frequency / 10–15 waves per minute;
- Cause erosion / remove sediment from the beach.

Note: Do not credit 'destructive' as a description of wave action.
[2 @ 1 mark]

The focus (hypocentre) is the point beneath the Earth's surface where tectonic strain is released and seismic waves originate. The epicentre is the specific point on the Earth's surface positioned vertically above the focus.

Award 1 mark for each valid point of difference (up to 2 marks):
- Focus is below ground / within the crust / underground AND epicentre is on the Earth's surface / ground level;
- Focus is where seismic rupture/fracture originates / where seismic energy is first released AND epicentre is the point vertically above the focus;
- Seismic waves radiate outward in all directions from the focus AND radiate across the surface from the epicentre.

Note: Differences can be stated as a paired comparative statement or two distinct descriptive points identifying the nature of each term.
[2 @ 1 mark]

Named process: Traction (or Saltation / Suspension / Solution).
Description: In traction, heavy bedload material such as boulders and cobbles are pushed and rolled along the river bed by the hydraulic power of the water.

Award 1 mark for naming a valid transportation process and 1 mark for an accurate description (1 + 1 mark):

- Traction (1); large boulders / stones rolled along the river bed / channel bottom (1)
- Saltation (1); smaller pebbles / sand particles bounced along the river bed (1)
- Suspension (1); fine sediment / silt / clay carried floating in the flow of the water (1)
- Solution (1); dissolved minerals / soluble rock transported invisibly in the water (1)

Note: Do not credit description if the named process is an erosional process (e.g. hydraulic action, abrasion).

Tropical rainforest plants have adapted to daily heavy precipitation by developing drip-tip leaves (and waxy coatings) that shed excess water rapidly, preventing leaf damage and fungal infections. They also develop extensive buttress roots that stabilize tall emergent trees in saturated, shallow soils.

Award 1 mark for each adaptation explained (up to 2 marks):
- Drip-tip leaves / pointed leaf tips to allow water to run off quickly / prevent leaves rotting / avoid mould growth;
- Waxy / glossy leaf surfaces to repel excess moisture / facilitate fast runoff;
- Buttress roots / stilt roots to provide structural support / stability in shallow / saturated / waterlogged soils;
- Smooth / thin bark to allow water to drain quickly down the trunk to the roots / prevent epiphytes taking hold.

Note: Mark requires adaptation linked to precipitation/water/drainage.
[2 @ 1 mark]

To explain the formation of a spit step by step:

1. **Longshore Drift Movement:** Prevailing wind drives waves towards the coast at an oblique angle. Swash pushes sand up the beach at this angle, while backwash pulls material straight down under gravity at 90 degrees to the shoreline. This zigzag movement transports sediment along the coastline.
2. **Change in Coastline:** When the coastline changes direction (such as at a bay, headland turn, or river mouth), sediment continues to be moved in the original direction.
3. **Deposition:** The water becomes deeper or more sheltered, causing waves to lose energy and drop their transported load.
4. **Extension into Water:** Continuous deposition builds up a ridge of sediment extending across the bay or estuary mouth above high-tide level.
5. **Hook Formation and Salt Marsh:** Changes in wind direction or river currents cause the end of the spit to curve inwards (forming recurved laterals/hooks). In the sheltered, low-energy water behind the spit, fine silt settles and vegetation colonises to form a salt marsh.

Ideas such as:
- Prevailing wind blows at an angle to the coastline;
- Waves/swash push sediment up beach at an oblique angle;
- Backwash carries material straight back down beach (at 90°) under gravity;
- Movement of material along coast by longshore drift / zigzag motion;
- Coastline changes direction / presence of river estuary / bay;
- Energy is reduced / wave energy decreases (causing deposition);
- Sediment/sand builds up above water / extends into open water;
- Hooked / recurved end forms due to change in secondary wind direction / wave refraction / river current (exp);
- Low energy / calm conditions behind spit allow silt deposition / salt marsh formation (exp).

5 @ 1 mark or development

The formation of an oxbow lake occurs through the following progressive stages:

1. **Differential Flow Velocity:** Water flows faster around the outside bend of a meander, creating high energy that causes active lateral erosion (via hydraulic action and corrasion/abrasion), eroding a river cliff.
2. **Deposition on Inner Bend:** On the inner bend, friction slows the water velocity, leading to deposition and the formation of a point bar (slip-off slope).
3. **Narrowing of the Neck:** Continued erosion on the outer bends and deposition on inner bends causes the neck between the two bends of the meander loop to become increasingly narrow.
4. **Cut-Through during Flooding:** During times of heavy rainfall or flood conditions when river discharge is high, the river possesses enough energy to break through the narrow neck, taking the most direct, straight path downhill.
5. **Sealing of Old Channel:** Deposition of silt/alluvium along the edges of the new straight channel eventually seals off the entrances to the old loop, isolating it as a crescent-shaped oxbow lake, which gradually silts up over time.

Ideas such as:
- Fastest flow / highest energy on outside of meander bend;
- Erosion takes place on outside bend (e.g. hydraulic action / abrasion);
- Slowest flow / lowest energy / friction on inside bend;
- Deposition occurs on inside bend (forming slip-off slope);
- Meander neck becomes progressively narrower;
- High discharge / flood event causes river to cut through the narrow neck;
- River takes the shortest / straightest course;
- Deposition / alluvium seals / cuts off the ends of the abandoned loop;
- Oxbow lake left isolated / forms stagnant crescent-shaped lake.

5 @ 1 mark or development

Level 1 (1–3 marks):
Statements are simple, generic, and could apply to any volcanic eruption (e.g., magma comes out of the ground; people died; houses were destroyed; ash fell on trees).

Level 2 (4–6 marks):
Developed points explaining the causes (e.g., subduction of the Indo-Australian plate creating rising viscous magma under high pressure) and/or detailing the impacts on both people and the environment (e.g., pyroclastic flows destroyed farmland causing crop failure and displacement into overcrowded refugee camps; ash contaminated water supplies and lahars altered river courses).
- Max 5 marks if no named example or inappropriate example is used.
- Max 6 marks if both causes and impacts (people & environment) are covered at Level 2, but without place-specific detail.

Level 3 (7 marks):
Comprehensive, fully developed explanations of both causes and impacts (covering both people and the natural environment) with place-specific details (e.g., named settlements like Bronggang, named river valleys like Gendol, specific plate names, casualty statistics or named monitoring zones).

Level 1 (1–3 marks):
- 1 mark for each relevant simple statement (causes and/or impacts).
- E.g. Plates move together; hot ash burned houses; crops died; ash covered forests.

Level 2 (4–6 marks):
- 1 mark for each developed statement explaining the tectonic cause or describing specific impacts on people/natural environment.
- E.g. The subduction of the denser oceanic plate melts rock, creating viscous magma that traps gas and builds high pressure; pyroclastic flows traveled down the valley destroying villages and displacing hundreds of thousands of farmers into emergency shelters; heavy ashfall caused forest canopies to collapse and acidified water sources.
(Award 4 marks for 1 developed point; 5 marks for 2 developed points; 6 marks for 3 or more developed points, provided both causes and impacts on people/environment are addressed).

Level 3 (7 marks):
- Must achieve Level 2 across all elements (causes, impacts on people, impacts on natural environment).
- Must include accurate, place-specific detail (e.g., named plates, named local settlements/rivers, exact dates/data).

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index used by the United Nations to evaluate and compare social and economic development across nations. It combines three key dimensions: health (measured by life expectancy at birth), education (measured by mean and expected years of schooling), and standard of living (measured by Gross National Income per capita).

Composite measure / single index / score between 0 and 1 measuring overall development / quality of life;
Combines life expectancy / health indicator;
Combines literacy / years of schooling / education indicator;
Combines GNI per capita / GDP per capita / income indicator.

Note: 1 mark for stating it is a composite/combined measure, 1 mark for naming at least two correct components, OR 2 marks for naming all three component indicators.
2 @ 1 mark

Subsistence farming is a farming practice in which the primary objective is to produce enough food to meet the basic nutritional needs of the farmer and their immediate family. The inputs are usually traditional and labor-intensive, and any surplus produced is minimal and rarely sold for commercial profit.

Farming/producing food primarily to feed the farmer / farmer's family / for own consumption;
Little or no surplus produced / not for profit / not intended for sale / not commercial.
2 @ 1 mark

A non-renewable energy resource is an energy reserve (such as coal, crude oil, or natural gas) that has formed over millions of years through geological processes. Because its rate of formation is extremely slow, it exists in limited reserves that are depleted through use and cannot be naturally regenerated at the rate of consumption.

Resource that is finite / limited in supply / will eventually run out / exhaustible;
Cannot be replaced / regenerated / replenished once used (in a human timeframe) / takes millions of years to form.

Note: Allow 1 mark maximum for two correct examples (e.g. coal and natural gas) if no other mark awarded.
2 @ 1 mark

Ecotourism is a sustainable form of tourism focused on visiting natural and undisturbed ecological sites. It emphasizes environmental preservation, minimizes tourist footprint, promotes environmental education, and ensures that financial benefits directly support local people and wildlife conservation.

Responsible / sustainable travel / tourism focused on natural environments / wildlife;
Aims to protect / conserve / minimize damage to the natural environment / low impact;
Benefits / supports local communities / respects local culture / educates tourists.
2 @ 1 mark

Part (i):
Country X is much more dependent on fossil fuels than Country Y.
- Country X gets 80% (48% + 32%) of its electricity from fossil fuels (coal and gas), whereas Country Y generates only 22% (8% + 14%) from fossil fuels.
- Coal forms the single largest source in Country X (48%), whereas it accounts for only 8% in Country Y.

Part (ii):
Country Y is more environmentally sustainable.
- Country Y generates a total of 73% of its electricity from renewable sources (42% HEP + 31% solar/wind), compared to only 17% in Country X.
- High reliance on coal and natural gas in Country X releases large amounts of carbon dioxide/greenhouse gases, contributing to global warming and climate change.
- Burning coal in Country X produces sulfur dioxide/nitrogen oxides leading to acid rain and smog, whereas Country Y's high use of solar, wind, and hydro generates zero direct greenhouse gas emissions during operation.

(i) Max 2 marks for comparative statements with data:
- Country X has a higher total reliance on fossil fuels than Country Y / Country X = 80% vs Country Y = 22%; [1]
- Country X uses significantly more coal (48%) than Country Y (8%) / Country X uses more natural gas (32%) than Country Y (14%); [1]
Note: Must use comparative language and quote accurate data from Table 5.1 for full credit.

(ii) Max 3 marks for evaluation and reasoning:
- Decision: Country Y is more environmentally sustainable (1 mark reserved);
- Country Y generates a much higher percentage of renewable energy / 73% vs 17% in Country X; [1]
- Country X emits significantly higher volumes of carbon dioxide / greenhouse gases due to high fossil fuel combustion (exp); [1]
- Country X risks severe local atmospheric pollution / acid rain / smog from coal combustion (exp); [1]
- Country Y conserves non-renewable reserves / reduces carbon footprint (exp). [1]

Part (i):
- Province A allocates the vast majority of its water to agriculture (74%), which is over three times higher than Province B (22%).
- Province B uses a much higher share of water for industrial purposes (46%) compared to Province A (12%).
- Domestic water use is higher in Province B (32%) than in Province A (14%).

Part (ii):
Province A challenges:
- High risk of water shortages/depletion of aquifers due to inefficient irrigation techniques in farming.
- Substantial infrastructure deficit, as 42% of the population still lacks access to piped clean drinking water, posing public health risks (water-borne diseases).

Province B challenges:
- Heavy industrial water demand risks contamination/pollution of local rivers and groundwater by industrial effluents and chemicals.
- High domestic demand requires extensive water treatment and constant supply management to prevent seasonal deficits in urban centres.

(i) Max 2 marks for comparative statements with supporting data:
- Agriculture is the main user in Province A (74%), whereas industry is the main user in Province B (46%); [1]
- Province B uses more water for domestic (32%) and industry (46%) than Province A (14% domestic and 12% industry); [1]
Note: Reserve 1 mark for paired comparative statistics with units (%).

(ii) Max 3 marks for comparative evaluation of challenges:
- Province A faces challenges supplying rural populations / 42% lack piped water which can lead to water-borne diseases (exp); [1]
- Province A faces high risks of water stress from over-extraction / evaporation in crop irrigation (exp); [1]
- Province B faces risks of water pollution / toxic discharge from heavy industrial usage (exp); [1]
- Province B must sustain high municipal water treatment capacity to maintain 94% piped supply (exp). [1]

A complete Level 3 response must include:
1. A correctly named country or area.
2. Developed explanations for why renewable energy sources were developed (e.g., physical suitability/resources, reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, reducing dependence on imported energy, providing cheap electricity for industrial growth).
3. Place-specific detail (e.g., named energy plants such as Hellisheiði or Kárahnjúkar, specific tectonic/glacial features, localized facts, statistics, or named towns/regions benefiting from the scheme).

Level 1 (1–3 marks)
- 1 mark for each simple statement describing/explaining reasons for developing renewable energy (e.g., non-renewables run out; reduces air pollution/carbon emissions; abundant wind/water/sunshine; saves money on fuel imports; creates jobs).

Level 2 (4–6 marks)
- 1 mark for each developed statement explaining reasons for developing renewable energy (e.g., explains how geological activity provides accessible geothermal heat for district heating, reducing coal/gas imports; explains how steep relief and high glacial runoff provide ideal conditions for continuous hydroelectric generation to power heavy industry).
- Note: Max 5 marks if no named or inappropriate example.

Level 3 (7 marks)
- Meets all Level 2 criteria with at least two developed explanations and includes comprehensive place-specific detail (e.g., named power stations like Hellisheiði/Kárahnjúkar, specific physical features like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge/Vatnajökull glacier, localized economic details like the Alcoa smelter in Reyðarfjörður, or accurate statistical data).