2022 AQA A-Level Psychology 7182 (Current) 模擬試題連答案詳解

Consistency is a key process in minority influence. It can be diachronic, where the minority group maintains the same core message over a long period of time, or synchronic, where all members of the minority group agree and express the same message. This consistency is effective because it disrupts the established majority norm and creates cognitive conflict. It signals to the majority that the minority is confident, certain, and committed to their cause, which forces members of the majority to process the message more deeply and reassess their own views.

1 mark for clearly identifying and defining consistency (e.g., mentioning diachronic or synchronic consistency, or keeping the same message). 1.67 marks for explaining the psychological mechanism of how this leads to influence (e.g., creating cognitive conflict, signaling confidence/commitment, or prompting deeper processing/reassessment by the majority).

One major limitation of the cognitive interview is that it is highly time-consuming. It takes much longer to conduct than standard police interviews because it requires establishing rapport with the witness and allowing them to slowly mentally reconstruct the environment. Furthermore, it requires specialist, expensive training for police officers to master the techniques. Due to these resource and time constraints, many police forces are unable to implement the cognitive interview fully, often relying on abbreviated versions instead.

1 mark for identifying a valid limitation of the cognitive interview (e.g., time-consuming or requiring specialist, costly training). 1.67 marks for developing this limitation in the context of real-world police investigations (e.g., explaining why these factors limit its practical utility or prevent full implementation).

Bowlby proposed that an infant's primary attachment relationship forms a cognitive framework or schema known as the internal working model. This model serves as a template for all future relationships. An infant who experiences a secure, loving attachment will build an internal working model of themselves as lovable and others as trustworthy, leading them to seek healthy, secure adult relationships. Conversely, an infant with an insecure attachment may develop a template of rejection or inconsistency, leading to adult relationships characterized by intimacy issues, trust problems, or clinginess.

1 mark for explaining the internal working model as a mental template, schema, or blueprint based on early primary attachment. 1.67 marks for linking this template to specific expectations or behaviors in adult relationships (e.g., secure attachment leading to trust, insecure attachment leading to fear of intimacy or clinginess).

### AO1: Knowledge and Understanding of Minority Influence
Minority influence is a form of social influence where a persuasive minority (sometimes even a single person) sways the opinions or behaviors of the majority, leading to internalisation (a deep and lasting change in both public and private views).

To be successful, the minority must demonstrate three key behavioral styles:
1. **Consistency**: The minority must maintain the same message over time (**diachronic consistency**) and keep agreement among all members of the minority group (**synchronic consistency**). This makes the majority reassess their own views and think that the minority must have a point if they are so united and unwavering.
2. **Commitment**: Minorities often engage in quite extreme activities to draw attention to their views. It is important that these activities present some risk to the minority because this demonstrates greater commitment. Majority group members then pay even more attention; this is called the **augmentation principle**.
3. **Flexibility**: Being extremely consistent can be interpreted negatively as rigid, dogmatic, and uncompromising. To avoid this, the minority needs to be prepared to adapt their point of view and accept reasonable and valid counterarguments. Mugny argued that striking a balance between consistency and flexibility is key.

Over time, these factors lead to more and more people converting to the minority view. This is known as the **snowball effect**, which eventually leads to social change.

### AO3: Evaluation of Minority Influence
* **Research Support for Consistency**: Moscovici et al. (1969) demonstrated the importance of consistency. Female participants were shown 36 blue slides of varying intensity and asked to state their color. In the consistent condition, two confederates repeatedly answered 'green' for all 36 slides. This led to participants agreeing on 8.42% of trials. In the inconsistent condition (where confederates said 'green' on 24 trials and 'blue' on 12), agreement dropped to 1.25%, demonstrating that a consistent minority is significantly more influential than an inconsistent one.
* **Research Support for Flexibility**: Nemeth (1986) conducted a simulated jury trial where groups discussed the amount of compensation to be paid to a victim of a ski-lift accident. When a confederate put forward an alternative amount and refused to budge (rigid/inflexible), they had no effect on the majority. However, when they showed willingness to compromise and met the majority halfway (flexible), the majority was much more likely to shift their position. This supports the view that flexibility is a crucial element of successful minority influence.
* **Methodological Limitations**: A major criticism of the laboratory research into minority influence (such as Moscovici’s slide study) is that the tasks are highly artificial. Deciding the color of a slide does not reflect how minorities attempt to change behavior in real life, where the stakes are much higher (e.g., political campaigning, climate change activism). Therefore, these studies lack ecological validity and may not represent how minority influence operates in real-world social dynamics.
* **Depth of Thought**: Martin et al. (2003) presented participants with a message supporting a particular viewpoint and measured their agreement. One group then heard a minority agree with it, while another heard a majority agree. Participants were then exposed to a conflicting view. Those who had heard the minority view were less likely to change their minds, suggesting that the minority message had been more deeply processed and had a more enduring effect, supporting the cognitive basis of minority influence.
* **Real-World Obstacles**: In real life, the distinction between a majority and a minority is not just about numbers. Majorities often possess power, status, and social support, whereas minorities are often tight-knit groups whose members face hostility and social exclusion. Lab studies fail to capture these important power dynamics, meaning they provide an oversimplified account of minority influence.

### Mark Allocation
* **AO1 (Knowledge and Understanding)**: 6 marks
* **AO3 (Evaluation/Analysis)**: 10 marks

### Performance Descriptors

#### Level 4 (13-16 marks)
* **Knowledge**: Detailed and accurate knowledge of minority influence processes (consistency, commitment, flexibility).
* **Evaluation**: Evaluation is detailed, well-explained, and highly effective. Clear links are made to research evidence.
* **Structure**: The answer is well-structured, coherent, and uses precise psychological terminology.

#### Level 3 (9-12 marks)
* **Knowledge**: Mostly accurate knowledge of minority influence, though there may be minor omissions in explaining all three features (consistency, commitment, flexibility).
* **Evaluation**: Evaluation is mostly effective, with some clear points made, but may lack depth or detail in places.
* **Structure**: The answer is generally structured and mostly coherent.

#### Level 2 (5-8 marks)
* **Knowledge**: Some knowledge of minority influence is present, but it lacks detail and may contain inaccuracies. Might only focus on one or two of the key behavioral styles.
* **Evaluation**: Evaluation is basic, superficial, or mainly descriptive of studies without clear evaluation.
* **Structure**: The answer lacks organization and has limited use of psychological terminology.

#### Level 1 (1-4 marks)
* **Knowledge**: Extremely limited or inaccurate knowledge. Processes are poorly outlined.
* **Evaluation**: Evaluation is absent, irrelevant, or highly flawed.
* **Structure**: The answer is disorganized and difficult to follow.

Duration is defined as the length of time information remains in a memory store. According to psychological research (e.g., Peterson and Peterson), the duration of STM is very limited, lasting approximately 18 to 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed.

1 mark for defining 'duration' as the length of time information is held/retained. 1.67 marks for identifying the duration of short-term memory as 18-30 seconds (accept 'under 30 seconds').

Consistency in minority influence can be synchronic (agreement between people in the minority group) or diachronic (consistency over time). When a minority maintains a stable, unchanging position, it draws attention to their cause, conveys confidence, and makes the majority reconsider their own assumptions.

1.67 marks for explaining the psychological effect of consistency (e.g., drawing attention, causing cognitive conflict, showing confidence). 1 mark for distinguishing or mentioning synchronic consistency (agreement within the group) or diachronic consistency (stability over time).

Reciprocity refers to a mutual, two-way interaction where infant and caregiver respond to each other's signals to sustain an interaction. Each party elicits a response from the other, which is often described as an 'interactional dance' or conversational turn-taking.

1.67 marks for explaining the reciprocal, two-way/mutual nature of the interaction (turn-taking, action-reaction). 1 mark for an elaboration or example (e.g., mother smiling in response to baby cooing, or mentioning Brazelton's 'dance' analogy).

AO1: Description of research into the effects of institutionalisation. Rutter et al.'s English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) study followed 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain. Cognitive and physical development was assessed at ages 4, 6, 11, and 15, alongside a control group of 52 British children adopted around the same time. Findings showed that children adopted after 6 months demonstrated significant intellectual deficit and disinhibited attachment, characterized by attention-seeking and indiscriminate affection towards all adults. Children adopted before 6 months rarely displayed these deficits and typically caught up with their peers. Zeanah et al.'s Bucharest Early Intervention Project also found that institutionalised children were far less likely to show secure attachment (19%) and far more likely to show disinhibited attachment (44%) compared to a control group. AO2: Application of knowledge to Leo and Maya's comments. Leo's son was adopted at four years old, which is well past the sensitive period of attachment formation (and past the critical 6-month threshold). This explains why he shows a disinhibited attachment style, being equally affectionate to strangers and lacking a preferred attachment figure. Maya's daughter was adopted at four months, before the 6-month threshold. This explains why she was able to form a normal, secure attachment to her adoptive parents, consistent with Rutter's findings that early-adopted children show normal attachment patterns. AO3: Evaluation of research into institutionalisation. One strength is the real-world application of this research, which has led to vital improvements in childcare practices in institutions, such as assigning key workers to children rather than having multiple rotating caregivers. Another strength is that Romanian orphan studies have fewer confounding variables than prior research; most children were institutionalised from birth, meaning their issues were not caused by prior trauma or abuse. However, a major limitation is that conditions in these Romanian orphanages were exceptionally poor, meaning the findings may lack generalisability to better-funded institutional settings. Furthermore, the long-term effects remain unclear, as longitudinal studies are still ongoing and some late-adopted individuals may show late-onset recovery or adaptation in adulthood.

AO1 (6 marks): Award up to 6 marks for description of research into the effects of institutionalisation, such as Rutter's ERA study or the Bucharest Early Intervention project. Detail should include procedures and key findings regarding intellectual development and disinhibited attachment. AO2 (4 marks): Award up to 4 marks for application of the research to the scenario. 2 marks for explaining Leo's son (adoption after 6 months/during the sensitive period leading to disinhibited attachment) and 2 marks for explaining Maya's daughter (adoption before 6 months leading to a normal secure attachment). AO3 (6 marks): Award up to 6 marks for evaluation of research, such as real-world applications to orphanage care, high internal validity due to lack of early confounding variables, and limitations regarding generalisability and the long-term permanence of the effects. Level 4 (13-16 marks): Accurate and detailed knowledge. Clear, effective application. Well-structured and balanced evaluation. Level 3 (9-12 marks): Mostly accurate knowledge. Appropriate application with minor omissions. Evaluation is present but may lack depth. Level 2 (5-8 marks): Limited or superficial knowledge. Basic application. Evaluation is limited or absent. Level 1 (1-4 marks): Very basic, fragmented knowledge. Application and evaluation are highly limited or absent.

In Ellis's ABC model, 'A' represents the activating event (failing the mock exam), 'B' represents the belief or cognitive interpretation of that event, and 'C' represents the emotional and behavioural consequences. Option B directly represents the cognitive interpretation (an irrational belief) that the student holds about their failure.

Award 2.67 marks for the correct answer (B). Award 0 marks for any other option selected.

Articulatory suppression tasks (such as repeating a word over and over) actively occupy the articulatory control process (the 'inner voice'), which is a sub-component of the phonological loop. Because this component is busy, verbal rehearsal of the printed words cannot take place, leading to a disruption in the phonological loop's capacity.

Award 2.67 marks for the correct answer (C). Award 0 marks for any other option selected.

Leo's behaviour is characteristic of an Insecure-avoidant (Type A) attachment. Children with this attachment style typically show low separation anxiety (little distress when the caregiver leaves), low reunion behavior (avoiding or not seeking proximity upon reunion), and high willingness to interact with a stranger (low stranger anxiety).

Award 2.67 marks for the correct answer (C). Award 0 marks for any other option selected.

AO1 (6 marks): - Kohlberg's Level of Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg proposed that moral development occurs in stages. Offenders are more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level of moral reasoning (Stages 1 and 2), whereas non-offenders typically progress to the conventional level or beyond. Pre-conventional reasoning is characterized by egocentrism and a focus on self-interest (e.g., obeying rules only to avoid punishment and gain personal rewards). - Cognitive Distortions: These are biased or irrational patterns of thinking that lead to an inaccurate perception of reality, used by offenders to justify or rationalize their criminal actions. - Hostile Attribution Bias: The tendency to misinterpret ambiguous actions or neutral facial expressions of others as being hostile, confrontational, or aggressive, which often triggers a disproportionate violent response. - Minimalisation: An attempt to downplay, deny, or trivialize the seriousness of an offense, such as rationalizing that 'no one was really hurt' or that the victim could easily afford the loss. AO2 (4 marks): - Application to Marcus: Marcus's expectation that he will not get caught (punishment avoidance) and that he will gain status among his peers (personal reward) points directly to pre-conventional moral reasoning. - Application to Marcus's justification: Marcus claiming that the store is wealthy enough to afford the loss and that 'it did not really hurt anyone' is an example of minimalisation, as he is actively downplaying the impact of his theft to reduce guilt. - Application to Leo: Leo's assumption that others are staring at him with angry or threatening intentions is an example of hostile attribution bias. He is misinterpreting an ambiguous social cue (staring) as a hostile threat, which triggers his aggressive behavior. AO3 (6 marks): - Strength of Moral Reasoning: Research support from Palmer and Hollin (1998), who compared moral reasoning between offenders and non-offenders. They found that the delinquent group showed significantly less mature moral reasoning than the control group, validating Kohlberg's developmental model. - Practical Application: The cognitive explanation has led to the development of effective treatment programs, such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and Anger Management. These therapies help offenders challenge their cognitive distortions (such as hostile attribution bias) and reduce recidivism rates. - Limitation of Moral Reasoning: The level of moral reasoning may depend on the type of offense. Thornton and Reid (1982) found that individuals who committed crimes for financial gain (e.g., theft) were far more likely to show pre-conventional reasoning than those committing impulsive crimes of passion (e.g., assault), suggesting Kohlberg's model may not explain all types of offending. - Limitation of Cognitive Distortions: Although cognitive distortions are highly descriptive of how offenders think, they are post-hoc rationalizations rather than primary causes of crime. They describe the thought patterns associated with offending behavior but do not fully explain the developmental origins of these distorted cognitions.

AO1 (6 marks): Award up to 6 marks for clear, coherent, and detailed knowledge of cognitive explanations (moral reasoning and cognitive distortions). AO2 (4 marks): Award up to 4 marks for clear and accurate application to Marcus (pre-conventional reasoning and minimalisation) and Leo (hostile attribution bias). AO3 (6 marks): Award up to 6 marks for effective and detailed evaluation of cognitive explanations (e.g., research support, real-world therapy applications, limitation regarding crime-type variations). Mark bands: Level 4 (13-16 marks): Knowledge is accurate and well-detailed. Application is clear and systematically applied to both Marcus and Leo. Evaluation is thorough, balanced, and effective. The answer is well-structured with clear, coherent psychological terminology. Level 3 (9-12 marks): Knowledge is mostly accurate. Application is present but may be unevenly distributed between the brothers. Evaluation is mostly effective. The answer is mostly organized and clear. Level 2 (5-8 marks): Knowledge is basic or limited. Application is superficial or only refers to one brother. Evaluation is basic or relies on assertion. Level 1 (1-4 marks): Knowledge is very brief or contains significant inaccuracies. Minimal application or evaluation. Fragmented response.

An idiographic approach focuses on the individual and emphasizes the unique personal experience, using qualitative methods. In the scenario, Dr. Vance's in-depth interviews with three widowed individuals represent this approach as she seeks to understand their unique journeys rather than comparing them to others. Conversely, a nomothetic approach seeks to establish general laws and principles of human behaviour by studying large groups of people using standardized, quantitative methods. In the scenario, Dr. Patel's suggestion to survey 500 widowed individuals using a standardised scale to find general principles of grief represents this approach.

1 mark for explaining the idiographic approach (focus on the individual, unique subjective experiences, qualitative methods). 1 mark for applying the idiographic approach to Dr. Vance (interviews with three individuals to understand unique journeys). 1 mark for explaining the nomothetic approach (focus on establishing general laws, large groups, quantitative scales). 1 mark for applying the nomothetic approach to Dr. Patel (surveying 500 individuals to establish general principles).

The first cognitive distortion is Hostile Attribution Bias. This is the tendency to interpret ambiguous actions or neutral cues from others as hostile or aggressive. Nathan demonstrates this by assuming the victim 'was clearly looking for a fight' simply because he 'looked at him funny'. The second cognitive distortion is Minimalisation (or minimization). This involves downplaying, underestimating, or denying the true significance and consequences of one's own offending behaviour. Nathan demonstrates this by claiming he 'barely touched him' and referring to the physical assault as just 'a tiny scrape'.

1 mark for identifying hostile attribution bias. 1 mark for applying hostile attribution bias to Nathan (assuming the look meant the victim wanted to fight). 1 mark for identifying minimalisation/minimization. 1 mark for applying minimalisation to Nathan (understating his actions as 'barely touched him' or 'a tiny scrape').

According to Walther's hyperpersonal model, online relationships can be more intimate and involve earlier, deeper self-disclosure than face-to-face ones. This explains why Chloe shares secrets much faster. Online, individuals have more control over what they disclose and can manipulate their self-presentation to appear highly favorable (selective self-presentation). Furthermore, the anonymity of virtual communication (the 'stranger-on-a-train' effect) reduces Chloe's fear of disapproval, encouraging her to disclose intimate secrets quickly. This intense self-disclosure leads to a rapid, heightened sense of closeness and intimacy, matching Chloe's experience of feeling a deep sense of intimacy very quickly.

1 mark for explaining that the hyperpersonal model predicts faster and deeper self-disclosure online compared to face-to-face. 1 mark for applying selective self-presentation (more control over online image). 1 mark for explaining anonymity / 'stranger-on-a-train' effect (reducing fear of rejection/social risk, leading to rapid disclosure of secrets). 1 mark for explaining how this rapid disclosure leads to an accelerated, intense feeling of intimacy.

Expressed Emotion (EE) refers to the qualitative climate of negative emotions directed towards a psychiatric patient by their family members or caregivers. In Liam's situation, high EE is evident. His mother demonstrates verbal criticism by calling him 'lazy' for sleeping late. She also shows hostility and emotional over-involvement/resentment by expressing frustration about the burden of caring for him. High levels of EE in the home act as a major source of stress for Liam. Since patients with schizophrenia have a lower tolerance for environmental stressors, this high-stress home environment is highly likely to impair his recovery and significantly increase his risk of relapse (re-admission or return of active symptoms).

1 mark for defining/explaining Expressed Emotion (EE) (negative emotional environment/attitudes from caregivers). 1 mark for applying EE to Liam's mother's specific behaviors (criticism of sleeping late/calling him 'lazy' AND/OR hostility regarding the burden of care). 1 mark for explaining that high EE serves as a major environmental stressor for the patient. 1 mark for linking this stress to poor recovery outcomes/high risk of relapse.