2025 Cambridge IGCSE Geography (0460) 模擬試題連答案詳解

To find the rate of natural increase as a percentage:
1. Subtract the death rate from the birth rate to find the natural increase per 1000: \(25 - 8 = 17\) per 1000.
2. Convert this to a percentage by dividing by 10: \(\frac{17}{10} = 1.7\%\).

To describe the trend:
- In 1980, the natural increase was \(38 - 14 = 24\) per 1000 (2.4%).
- In 2020, the natural increase was \(12 - 7 = 5\) per 1000 (0.5%).
- Therefore, the overall trend is a significant decline in the rate of natural growth over the 40-year period.

Part (a): 1.5 Marks
- 1 mark for the correct answer of 1.7% (accept 1.7 without the % sign if working is clear).
- 0.5 marks for correct working shown: \(25 - 8\) or \(17\) per 1000.

Part (b): 1.0 Mark
- 1 mark for identifying that the rate of natural increase has declined/decreased over time (with or without supporting statistics from 1980 and 2020).

a) Durban is the primary destination as it receives the largest percentage of migrants (65%).
b) Pull factors attracting rural migrants specifically to Durban include:
1. Economic opportunities: Durban is a major port city offering industrial, shipping, and tourism-related jobs.
2. Accessibility/Proximity: Durban is geographically closer to the rural province than Johannesburg, representing fewer intervening obstacles and lower transport costs for rural migrants.

Part (a): 0.5 Marks
- 0.5 marks for correctly identifying Durban.

Part (b): 2.0 Marks
- 1 mark each for two distinct, valid pull factors linked to the primary destination (e.g., job opportunities, port activities, proximity/lower travel cost, existing family networks in Durban).

a) The Regional City has the largest sphere of influence because it offers low-frequency, high-order specialized services (like universities and airports) that people are willing to travel long distances to access.
b) Settlement size and service provision are directly related. Small settlements (hamlets/villages) have low populations and can only support low-order, high-frequency services. Large settlements (Regional Cities) provide high-order services because they have the massive threshold population (minimum number of customers) necessary to keep specialized businesses and facilities profitable.

Part (a): 1.0 Mark
- 1 mark for identifying 'Regional City'.

Part (b): 1.5 Marks
- 1 mark for explaining the direct relationship (larger settlements have larger populations and thus support more high-order services).
- 0.5 marks for using the concept of 'threshold population' correctly (the minimum number of people needed to make a service viable).

The spatial distribution of housing in Avenburg is determined by economic and environmental factors:
1. Low-income housing (Zone B): Positioned adjacent to Zone A because the land is cheap due to external costs of heavy industry (noise, air pollution, aesthetic blight). Low-income workers live here to avoid transportation costs and to have easy walking access to their factory jobs.
2. High-income housing (Zone C): Positioned further away on elevated slopes because wealthy residents can easily afford the cost of commuting. They choose to live on elevated land to escape the heavy pollution and noise of the valley/canal zone, benefiting from better environmental quality, cleaner air, and scenic views.

Low-income housing location: 1.25 Marks
- 0.75 marks for explaining economic constraints / proximity to work (saving transport costs).
- 0.5 marks for mentioning cheap land values near industrial pollution.

High-income housing location: 1.25 Marks
- 0.75 marks for explaining desire for high environmental quality (away from noise/air pollution of Zone A) or prestigious high-ground views.
- 0.5 marks for mentioning the ability to afford commuting costs.

### Sample Answer: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Rio de Janeiro has experienced rapid urban growth, leading to the expansion of informal settlements known as favelas (e.g., Rocinha), which face problems of poor sanitation, unstable housing, and high crime rates.

To manage these challenges, several strategies have been implemented:

1. **The Favela-Bairro Project (Slum-to-Neighbourhood):** This is a site-and-service and self-help scheme where the local government provides building materials (such as breeze blocks, cement, and metal roofing) and basic infrastructure, while residents volunteer their labour to upgrade their homes. This makes houses safer and more resilient to landslides on steep slopes.
2. **Infrastructure Upgrades:** The government has paved roads and installed formal sewage systems and water pipes in upgraded favelas. Paved roads allow emergency services like ambulances and fire engines to access previously unreachable areas, while formal sanitation reduces the spread of water-borne diseases like cholera.
3. **Public Transport Integration:** A cable car system (Teleférico) was built in the Complexo do Alemão group of favelas. This connected residents directly to the main railway network, reducing commute times to the Central Business District (CBD) from several hours to under an hour, thus increasing employment opportunities and integration.
4. **Pacification (UPPs):** Police Pacifying Units (UPPs) were introduced to reclaim control of favela areas from drug gangs, reducing violent crime rates and allowing social projects and formal businesses to establish themselves safely.

**Level 1 (1 to 3 marks): Simple Statements**
* Answers are basic, generic, and could apply to almost any city.
* *Example:* They built new houses for poor people. They put in water pipes. They built a new train system to help people travel to work.

**Level 2 (4 to 6 marks): Developed Statements (Explanation)**
* Candidates describe and explain strategies, showing how they reduce specific problems.
* *Example:* In the favelas, the government provided residents with brick and concrete materials so they could rebuild their wooden shacks, making them more stable against landslides. They also installed formal water mains to stop people drinking contaminated water, which reduces the spread of diseases like cholera.

**Level 3 (7 marks): Comprehensive Case Study**
* Must name a valid urban area.
* Includes specific place-details, names of schemes, or localized statistics (e.g., Rocinha, Complexo do Alemão, Favela-Bairro project, Teleférico).
* At least two fully developed Level 2 explanations are supported by precise case study facts.

For (i), A is the river cliff and B is the slip-off slope. Correct identification of each is worth 0.5 marks. For (ii), the candidate must state that water velocity is higher at A and lower at B (0.5 marks), leading to erosion at A (0.5 marks) and deposition at B (0.5 marks).

Part (i): 1 mark total. 0.5 marks for identifying A as river cliff / outer bank; 0.5 marks for identifying B as slip-off slope / point bar / inner bank. Part (ii): 1.5 marks total. 0.5 marks for stating water velocity is higher at A and lower at B; 0.5 marks for linking higher velocity at A to erosion; 0.5 marks for linking lower velocity at B to deposition.

Part (i): The process is longshore drift (1 mark). Part (ii): The ecosystem is a salt marsh or mudflat (0.5 marks). Part (iii): The spit blocks wave energy, creating sheltered, calm conditions where fine sediments deposit and plants grow (1 mark).

1 mark for identifying 'longshore drift'. 0.5 marks for identifying 'salt marsh' or 'mudflat'. 1 mark for explaining that the spit blocks waves / creates low-energy conditions allowing fine sediment deposition.

Part (i): High pressure / anticyclone (0.5 marks) and 1032 mb (0.5 marks). Part (ii): Anticlockwise (0.5 marks). Part (iii): Clear/dry weather (0.5 marks) due to sinking air preventing condensation (0.5 marks).

0.5 marks for identifying 'High pressure' or 'Anticyclone'. 0.5 marks for stating '1032 mb' (accept 1032). 0.5 marks for stating 'Anticlockwise' direction. 1 mark for explaining clear/dry weather due to sinking/descending air (0.5 for weather description, 0.5 for explanation).

Part (i): Range is Max - Min = 27°C - 26°C = 1°C (0.5 marks). Part (ii): Constant high temperatures (0.5 marks) and high rainfall all year round (0.5 marks). Part (iii): Drip tips or waxy cuticles (0.5 marks) allow rapid runoff of water to prevent bacterial/fungal growth or damage to the leaf (0.5 marks).

0.5 marks for correct calculation of annual temperature range (1°C). 1 mark (0.5 x 2) for identifying two climatic characteristics (hot/high temperatures all year round, high annual precipitation/wet all year). 1 mark for adaptation explanation: 0.5 marks for naming adaptation (drip-tips/waxy coating); 0.5 marks for explaining the function (shed water quickly to prevent rotting/damage).

Example response for the Amazon Rainforest (Brazil):

In the Amazon Rainforest, where temperatures average around 27°C year-round and annual rainfall exceeds 2,000 mm, vegetation has adapted structurally to survive and thrive.

1. Buttress Roots: Due to the high rainfall, nutrients are rapidly leached from the soil, leaving only a thin layer of nutrient-rich topsoil. Large emergent trees, like the Kapok tree, grow up to 50 meters to reach sunlight. To support their immense height in shallow soils, they have developed massive flared buttress roots that spread out horizontally near the surface.

2. Drip-Tip Leaves: The daily convective rainfall is intense. Plants in the understorey and canopy layers, such as rubber trees, have thick, waxy leaves with narrow, pointed 'drip tips'. This allowed heavy rainwater to run off rapidly, preventing water from pooling on the leaf surface, which would otherwise encourage the growth of fungi, mould, or algae that block sunlight.

3. Lianas and Epiphytes: In the dense, multi-layered forest, sunlight is a limiting factor, with less than 2% reaching the forest floor. Woody vines called lianas adapt by rooting in the ground and climbing up the trunks of host trees to reach the canopy where sunlight is abundant. Similarly, epiphytes (like orchids) grow high up on branches, absorbing water and nutrients directly from the humid air and rainfall rather than the soil.

Levels of Response marking system:

Level 1 (1–3 marks): Simple / generic statements.
- Identifies basic adaptations without fully explaining how they relate to the climate (e.g., 'Trees have drip tips to get rid of water', 'Lianas climb up trees to get light', 'Bark is thin').
- No named case study, or only a country named.

Level 2 (4–6 marks): Developed explanations.
- Explains *how* and *why* the adaptation helps the plant survive the specific climatic conditions (e.g., explains that drip tips prevent water accumulation which stops mould growth, or explains that buttress roots are needed because shallow soils lack nutrients due to heavy leaching/rainfall).
- Max 5 marks if no named case study or inappropriate study area.

Level 3 (7 marks): Fully developed explanations with place-specific details.
- At least three developed explanations of different adaptations.
- Specific reference to a named, localized case study (e.g., the Amazon Basin, Brazil; Daintree Rainforest, Australia) with appropriate place-specific details (e.g., naming specific canopy heights, annual rainfall figures like 2,000mm+, or specific species like Kapok trees/epiphytic orchids).

(a) Looking at the values: Country Z has the lowest GNI ($1,200) and lowest HDI (0.39), while Country W has the highest GNI ($45,000) and highest HDI (0.92). This indicates a positive relationship. (b) The country with the highest development is Country W (0.92) and the lowest is Country Z (0.39). Difference = 0.92 - 0.39 = 0.53. (c) GNI per capita is a mean average which can hide extreme poverty and wealth disparity, and it fails to measure non-economic factors like literacy rates or life expectancy directly.

(a) 1 mark for identifying positive correlation/relationship. (b) 1 mark for the correct calculation: 0.53. (c) 0.5 marks for explaining a limitation of GNI (e.g., hides inequality, ignores healthcare/education, or is an average). Reject: 'it is not accurate' without qualification.

(a) The candidate must describe the trends for all three sectors with appropriate percentage changes. Primary decreased from more than half (55%) to a quarter (25%). Secondary and tertiary both grew by 15% each, with tertiary becoming the dominant sector by 2020. (b) As a country develops, agricultural industries mechanise, requiring fewer workers. Simultaneously, industrialization and urban growth pull workers into factory and service roles.

(a) 1.5 marks total: 0.5 marks for identifying the decrease in primary sector with data; 0.5 marks for identifying the increase in secondary sector with data; 0.5 marks for identifying the increase in tertiary sector with data. (b) 1 mark for a valid reason: e.g., mechanisation of farming, rural-to-urban migration, or growth of secondary/tertiary industries pulling labor away. Reject: 'people don't want to farm' without elaboration.

(a) Comparing the two sources: Coal decreased by 35% (from 60% to 25%), whereas wind & solar increased by 35% (from 10% to 45%). In 2010 coal was higher than wind & solar, but in 2022 wind & solar was higher than coal. (b) Wind and solar are renewable sources that do not emit carbon dioxide during operation, unlike coal combustion which releases massive quantities of greenhouse gases and sulfur dioxide.

(a) 1.5 marks total: 0.5 marks for comparing 2010 values (coal higher than wind/solar with data); 0.5 marks for comparing 2022 values (wind/solar higher than coal with data); 0.5 marks for noting the opposite trends (coal decreasing, wind/solar increasing). (b) 1 mark for valid environmental benefit: e.g., lower CO2/greenhouse emissions, reduction in acid rain, improved air quality. Reject: 'saves the environment' (too vague).

(a) The contrast requires direct comparison: Agriculture is dominant in Sub-Saharan Africa (82%) but low in Europe (21%). Industry is dominant in Europe (57%) but very low in Sub-Saharan Africa (8%). Domestic use is double in Europe (22%) compared to Sub-Saharan Africa (10%). (b) Europe's secondary and tertiary sectors are highly developed. Factories, power generation (thermal/nuclear cooling), and chemical processing plants require massive, continuous supplies of water, which are largely absent or less developed in Sub-Saharan African economies.

(a) 1.5 marks total: 0.5 marks for comparing agriculture; 0.5 marks for comparing industry; 0.5 marks for comparing domestic water use. Accurate data support must be used for full marks. (b) 1 mark for suggesting a valid geographical reason (e.g., higher concentration of manufacturing/factories, water needed for cooling in power stations, higher level of industrial development in Europe). Reject: 'Europe has more technology' (too vague).

### Example Case Study: Kenya (Mombasa and Coastal Resorts)

**Opportunities:**
- **Employment:** Tourism has generated direct employment for thousands of locals in Mombasa as tour guides, hotel staff (e.g., at the Serena Beach Resort), and boat operators. This provides regular wages that are often higher than agricultural earnings.
- **Multiplier Effect:** Local farmers and fishermen benefit by selling fresh produce and seafood directly to major hotels, extending economic benefits into rural communities.
- **Infrastructure:** Government investment in infrastructure, such as the upgrading of Moi International Airport and the construction of roads linking Mombasa to beach resorts, has improved overall accessibility for local residents.

**Challenges:**
- **Seasonal Unemployment:** Tourism is highly seasonal, dependent on European holiday patterns. During the 'low season' (wet months), many hotel workers are laid off or face reduced hours, leading to income instability.
- **Cultural Disruption / Social Issues:** The growth of mass tourism has led to cultural clashes, including the commercialization of traditional Maasai cultures and issues like beach boys ('beach operators') harassing tourists or dropping out of school to pursue quick tourism cash.
- **Inflation:** The presence of relatively affluent international tourists has driven up the cost of basic food items and land in coastal settlements, making it difficult for local people to afford housing.

**Level 1 (1–3 marks):**
- Candidates make simple, generic statements about the opportunities and/or challenges of tourism.
- *Example:* Tourism creates jobs in hotels. However, it makes things more expensive and causes traffic.
- *Marking:* 1 mark for each simple statement up to a maximum of 3.

**Level 2 (4–6 marks):**
- Candidates provide developed explanations of *both* opportunities and challenges.
- *Example:* Tourism creates direct jobs in hotels and restaurants, which increases household incomes and allows local families to pay for healthcare and education. However, many of these jobs are seasonal, which means that during the low wet season, workers face unemployment and struggle to afford living costs.
- *Marking:*
- 4 marks: Developed explanation of one side (opportunity or challenge), or simple statements of both.
- 5 marks: Developed explanation of both sides (at least one opportunity and one challenge explained).
- 6 marks: Multiple developed explanations of both opportunities and challenges.

**Level 3 (7 marks):**
- Candidates provide fully developed explanations of both opportunities and challenges.
- Must include specific, accurate, and localized place-specific details (e.g., specific names of towns, hotels, national parks, statistics, or localized cultural details) for the chosen case study area.