2023 Edexcel IGCSE Economics 模擬試題連答案詳解

The division of labour involves dividing the production process into separate, specialized tasks. For an individual worker, repeating the same simple task over and over leads to monotony, boredom, and a loss of motivation. Option B is incorrect because division of labour reduces time wasted moving between tasks. Option C is incorrect because division of labour increases the risk of structural unemployment due to over-specialisation. Option D is incorrect because it is a factor affecting the business rather than the individual worker, and division of labour actually reduces training costs for the firm.

1 mark for the correct answer (A). Reject all other options.

To calculate the total cost, use the formula: \(\text{Total Cost (TC)} = \text{Total Fixed Cost (TFC)} + \text{Total Variable Cost (TVC)}\). First, calculate the Total Variable Cost (TVC): \(\text{TVC} = \text{Average Variable Cost (AVC)} \times \text{Quantity (Q)} = \$8 \times 500 = \$4,000\). Next, calculate the Total Cost (TC): \(\text{TC} = \$3,000 + \$4,000 = \$7,000\). Therefore, the correct option is C.

1 mark for the correct answer (C). Reject all other options.

The division of labour is an economic concept where the production process of a good or service is broken down into a series of distinct and specialized stages or tasks. Rather than a single worker completing the entire production process from start to finish, different workers or machines are assigned to specialize in one specific part of the process, leading to increased productivity and efficiency.

1 mark for identifying that the production process is broken down or split into separate/individual tasks. 1 mark for explaining that workers specialize in these specific, individual tasks.

One benefit to a firm of using division of labour is increased productivity. Because workers specialize in a single, specific task, they become faster and more skilled at it over time. This reduces the time wasted switching between different tasks, which lowers the average cost of production for the business.

1 mark for identifying any valid benefit to a firm of division of labour. Acceptable answers include:
- Increased productivity / efficiency
- Lower unit/average costs of production
- Time saved from not switching between tasks
- Increased output per worker / greater scale of production
- Greater ease of training workers.

A negative externality of production is an external cost imposed on third parties outside the market transaction as a result of producing a good. A common example is air pollution from a manufacturing factory, which causes health problems and respiratory issues for local residents who did not produce or buy the product.

1 mark for a valid example of a production-side negative externality. Acceptable answers include:
- Chemical runoff / water pollution from industrial plants
- Noise pollution from a factory or construction site
- Air pollution / carbon emissions from manufacturing
- Deforestation from commercial logging.
Do not accept examples that are purely consumption externalities (e.g., passive smoking or littering).

Step 1: Calculate the total cost (TC). \(\text{Total Cost} = \text{Average Cost} \times \text{Quantity} = \$22 \times 400 = \$8,800\). Step 2: Calculate the total profit. \(\text{Total Profit} = \text{Total Revenue} - \text{Total Cost} = \$12,000 - \$8,800 = \$3,200\). Alternatively, calculate profit per unit first: \(\text{Price (Average Revenue)} = \frac{\$12,000}{400} = \$30\). \(\text{Profit per unit} = \$30 - \$22 = \$8\). \(\text{Total Profit} = \$8 \times 400 = \$3,200\).

Award 1 mark for showing correct method/workings, e.g. \(400 \times 22 = 8,800\) or \(12,000 / 400 = 30\). Award 2 marks for the correct final answer: \(\$3,200\) (or \(3,200\)). Note: Award full 2 marks for the correct answer even if no workings are shown.

To show the effect of a tax on producers: 1. Draw a new supply curve parallel and to the left of the original supply curve S, labeling it S1 (or S + tax). 2. Identify the new intersection point between the original demand curve D and the new supply curve S1. 3. Draw a dotted line from this new intersection to the vertical axis and label the new price as P1. 4. Draw a dotted line from this new intersection to the horizontal axis and label the new quantity as Q1.

Award 1 mark for each of the following up to a maximum of 3 marks: - Shift of the supply curve to the left, labeled S1 or S + tax (1 mark) - New equilibrium price P1 correctly labeled on the vertical axis, showing an increase (1 mark) - New equilibrium quantity Q1 correctly labeled on the horizontal axis, showing a decrease (1 mark)

One disadvantage is that performing a single, highly specialized task can lead to extreme boredom or monotony for the worker. This loss of variety reduces motivation and job satisfaction over time. Consequently, workers may experience lower morale, leading to higher absenteeism or even an increased likelihood of making mistakes due to a lack of concentration.

Award 1 mark for identifying a disadvantage, 1 mark for development, and 1 mark for further development.

- **Identification of a disadvantage (1 mark)**: e.g., Work can become boring/monotonous OR Workers become overly dependent on one skill / risk structural unemployment.
- **Development (1 mark)**: e.g., Because workers repeat the same simple task all day / Because their skills are highly specific to one stage of production.
- **Further development (1 mark)**: e.g., This leads to a loss of motivation and lower job satisfaction / This makes it difficult for them to find another job if they are made redundant.

The division of labour is the process where a production process is split into separate tasks, with each task assigned to a specific worker.

This has several impacts on average costs:
- Increased productivity: As workers repeat the same task, they become highly skilled at it. This increased efficiency means output per worker increases, reducing the average labor cost per unit.
- Time efficiency: No time is wasted switching from one task to another or changing tools, which keeps average costs lower.
- Boredom and demotivation: The repetitive nature of the work can lead to boredom, reducing productivity or leading to high staff turnover. Recruitment and training of new workers can increase average costs.

Level 1 (1-2 marks): Identifies the concept of division of labour or average costs. Limited analysis showing a basic connection between division of labour and costs.
Level 2 (3-4 marks): Explains how division of labour leads to specialisation and productivity improvements, with a partial chain of reasoning showing why this affects average costs.
Level 3 (5-6 marks): Offers a logical, coherent chain of reasoning clearly linking division of labour to shifts in average costs. May analyse both the positive effects (efficiency, time saved) and potential negative effects (boredom, turnover costs) on average costs.

A positive externality in consumption occurs when the consumption of a good or service provides external benefits to third parties who are not involved in the transaction. Social benefit is the sum of private benefit and external benefit: \(MSB = MPB + \text{External Benefit}\). Since external benefits are positive, Marginal Social Benefit exceeds Marginal Private Benefit (\(MSB > MPB\)). Therefore, option a is correct.

1 mark for the correct option (a).

The division of labour involves dividing a production process into separate, simplified tasks with different workers specialising in each. For workers, performing the same simple task repeatedly often leads to boredom and monotony (option c). This can reduce motivation and job satisfaction. Option a is incorrect because training time is typically reduced. Option b is incorrect because highly specialised skills increase the risk of structural unemployment. Option d is incorrect because division of labour typically increases efficiency, and efficiency is a firm benefit rather than a direct disadvantage to the worker.

1 mark for the correct option (c).

A full definition should include two key elements: first, the division or breaking down of the production process into separate, smaller tasks (1 mark); second, workers specialising in or focusing on one of these specific tasks (1 mark).

Award 1 mark for identifying that a production process is split up or broken down into individual tasks. Award 1 mark for identifying that workers specialise in or are allocated to one of these specific tasks. For example: 'The separation of a work process into a number of tasks, with each task performed by a separate person.' Reject definitions of general specialisation that do not refer to dividing a production process.

To calculate the total cost, we must first find the Total Variable Cost (TVC) and then add the Total Fixed Cost (TFC).

Step 1: Calculate Total Variable Cost (TVC)
\(\text{TVC} = \text{Average Variable Cost (AVC)} \times \text{Quantity (Q)}\)
\(\text{TVC} = £2.50 \times 4,000 = £10,000\)

Step 2: Calculate Total Cost (TC)
\(\text{TC} = \text{Total Fixed Cost (TFC)} + \text{Total Variable Cost (TVC)}\)
\(\text{TC} = £6,000 + £10,000 = £16,000\)

Award 1 mark for showing correct method/working:
- \(£6,000 + (£2.50 \times 4,000)\) OR identifying Total Variable Cost as \(£10,000\).

Award 1 mark for the correct answer:
- \(£16,000\) (accept \(16,000\) or \(16000\)).

Note: Award full 2 marks for the correct answer even if no working is shown.

One disadvantage is that workers perform the same narrow, repetitive task every day, which can cause severe boredom and monotony (1 mark). This lack of variety can lead to a drop in motivation, lower job satisfaction, or increased risk of repetitive strain injuries (1 mark).

1 mark for identifying a valid disadvantage (e.g., boredom, repetition, loss of flexible skills/deskilling).
1 mark for explaining the impact on the worker (e.g., leading to lower motivation, reduced job satisfaction, or reduced employability in other sectors).

Solar energy generates positive environmental externalities because it reduces air pollution compared to fossil fuels (1 mark). By providing a subsidy, the government lowers the firms' cost of production, shifting the supply curve outwards and reducing the market price to encourage consumption closer to the socially optimum level (1 mark).

1 mark for identifying a valid reason (e.g., to reduce negative externalities of carbon emissions, to encourage consumption of clean energy/merit goods, or to lower the market price of solar panels).
1 mark for development/explanation (e.g., explaining how lowering production costs increases supply or shifts consumption towards the socially optimal level of output).

To gain 3 marks, the candidate must identify a valid reason for locating abroad, apply it to the scenario of VoltRide/electric bicycles, and explain the economic consequence for the firm. For example, by moving production of electric bicycles to India, VoltRide can benefit from significantly lower labor costs compared to the UK. This reduction in operating expenses lowers the total cost per unit (average cost), allowing the firm to either lower prices to increase sales volume or keep prices steady to enjoy higher profit margins.

1 mark for identifying a valid reason (e.g., lower wages / cheaper raw materials / avoiding trade barriers). 1 mark for applying it to the context of VoltRide / electric bicycles / India. 1 mark for explaining how this benefits the firm (e.g., lower unit costs leading to higher profitability or competitiveness).

Indicative content: Positive impacts of MNCs on a host country include: 1. Employment creation: MNCs establish factories and offices, creating direct jobs and indirect employment in supply chain industries. This reduces unemployment and increases household incomes. 2. Technology and skills transfer: MNCs introduce advanced production techniques, management skills, and training programs, which spill over to local workers and firms, boosting domestic productivity. 3. Economic growth and FDI: Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows directly boost GDP, stimulate economic activity, and improve the capital account of the balance of payments. 4. Increased tax revenues: Corporations pay profit taxes and workers pay income taxes, which increases government tax revenue to fund infrastructure, education, and health. Negative impacts of MNCs on a host country include: 1. Repatriation of profits: MNCs often send profits back to their home country rather than reinvesting them in the host economy, reducing the local multiplier effect. 2. Exploitation of local resources and labor: To minimize costs, some MNCs may pay low wages, offer poor working conditions, or cause environmental pollution due to weak local regulations. 3. Competition with local firms: Large, highly efficient MNCs may outcompete smaller domestic businesses, leading to local firm closures and structural unemployment. Evaluation: The overall impact of MNCs largely depends on the strength of host government regulation. If local authorities enforce strict labor and environmental laws, negative impacts are minimized. Additionally, if MNCs build strong linkages with local suppliers rather than importing all raw materials, the positive multiplier effect on the host economy will be significantly greater.

Level 1 (1-3 marks): Demonstrates isolated or imprecise knowledge and understanding of economic terms. Identification of basic pros/cons of MNCs. Weak or no application to host countries. Level 2 (4-6 marks): Demonstrates mostly accurate knowledge and understanding of economic concepts. Analysis of both positive and negative impacts is present but may lack depth or balanced chains of reasoning. Some application to host countries is shown. Level 3 (7-9 marks): Demonstrates precise knowledge and understanding of economic concepts. Strong application throughout. Well-developed and balanced chains of reasoning for both positive and negative impacts of MNCs. Evaluative comments are supported by a logical, reasoned conclusion/judgment, explaining on what factors the final impact depends (e.g., government regulations, integration with local suppliers).

An external cost (negative externality) is a cost experienced by a third party who is not involved in the economic activity. Disruption to local marine wildlife due to dredging (Option C) is a negative externality because it is an unintended side effect that harms the local ecosystem and potentially local fishing or tourism, which the port operator does not pay for. Options A and B are private costs to the firm, and Option D is a source of private revenue for the firm.

Award 1 mark for the correct answer (C). Reject all other options.

To find the average total cost (ATC), first calculate the total cost (TC) using the formula: \(TC = TFC + TVC\). In this case, \(TC = £4,000 + £6,000 = £10,000\). Next, divide the total cost by the quantity (Q) of tables produced: \(ATC = \frac{TC}{Q} = \frac{£10,000}{200} = £50\). Alternatively, calculate average fixed cost (AFC) and average variable cost (AVC) separately: \(AFC = \frac{£4,000}{200} = £20\) and \(AVC = \frac{£6,000}{200} = £30\). Thus, \(ATC = AFC + AVC = £20 + £30 = £50\).

Award 1 mark for the correct answer (D). Reject all other options.

A subsidy reduces the cost of production for solar panel manufacturers. This shifts the supply curve to the right (downwards) from \(S_1\) to \(S_2\). Consequently, the market equilibrium moves along the demand curve, resulting in a lower equilibrium price from \(P_1\) to \(P_2\) and a higher equilibrium quantity from \(Q_1\) to \(Q_2\).

Award 1 mark for each of the following:
- Original equilibrium price \(P_1\) and quantity \(Q_1\) correctly labeled at the intersection of the original supply curve \(S_1\) and demand curve \(D\).
- A rightward/downward shift of the supply curve to \(S_2\).
- New equilibrium price \(P_2\) (lower than \(P_1\)) and quantity \(Q_2\) (higher than \(Q_1\)) correctly labeled at the intersection of \(S_2\) and \(D\).

Division of labour involves dividing a production process into specialized, separate tasks performed by different workers.

First, it leads to increased worker productivity. By focusing on a single, repetitive task, workers become highly skilled and efficient at that specific task. This specialized focus reduces the time lost in switching from one task to another, such as putting down one tool and picking up another. As a result, the firm can produce a larger volume of goods in the same period.

Second, it reduces costs of production. Specialized workers require less comprehensive training since they only need to learn a single task rather than the entire manufacturing process, which lowers training expenses. Additionally, because workers are more productive, the firm's output per worker increases, allowing the business to spread its fixed overhead costs over a larger quantity of output. This leads to a reduction in the average cost of production, making the firm more price-competitive and increasing its profit margins.

AO1 (2 marks): Knowledge and understanding
- Up to 2 marks for defining/explaining division of labour or identifying relevant benefits (e.g., increased output per worker, less time wasted, reduced training costs).

AO2 (2 marks): Application
- Up to 2 marks for applying knowledge to a manufacturing context (e.g., referring to assembly line production, specific machine usage, or specialized tool utilization).

AO3 (2 marks): Analysis
- Up to 2 marks for analytical development of how these factors benefit the firm (e.g., linking specialization to mastery of tasks, explaining how increased productivity reduces average cost, or explaining how lower unit costs improve competitiveness and profitability).

Marking guidance:
- 1-2 marks: Demonstrates isolated knowledge of the division of labour with little or no application to manufacturing.
- 3-4 marks: Shows good understanding of the division of labour with clear application to a manufacturing firm, but links to performance or costs are not fully developed.
- 5-6 marks: Comprehensive analysis of the benefits, with well-developed links between task specialization, increased productivity, and the subsequent impacts on the firm's costs and efficiency.

An increase in foreign direct investment (FDI) by multinational corporations (MNCs) can have significant impacts on domestic producers in a developing country. On the positive side, local firms may benefit from technology transfer and knowledge spillovers. By observing MNCs, domestic firms can adopt advanced production techniques, modern management practices, and higher quality standards, raising their productivity. Furthermore, MNCs often source raw materials and components locally, which creates new demand and business opportunities for local suppliers. Additionally, MNCs might invest in local infrastructure like roads or telecommunications, reducing transport and communication costs for all domestic firms. On the negative side, domestic producers may face intense competition. MNCs usually benefit from global economies of scale and have access to cheaper capital, enabling them to sell goods at lower prices. This can crowd out domestic firms, leading to closures and job losses, particularly in infant industries. Moreover, MNCs might bid up the prices of resources, such as skilled labour, making it more expensive for domestic firms to attract and retain qualified workers. In evaluation, the overall impact depends heavily on the level of development of domestic firms and their ability to compete or adapt. If domestic firms are too weak, they may be wiped out. However, if the government introduces policies that encourage joint ventures or mandate a minimum level of local content sourcing, domestic producers are much more likely to benefit. The sector of FDI also matters, as manufacturing may offer greater skill transfer than resource extraction.

Level 1 (1-3 marks): Demonstrates isolated or imprecise knowledge of FDI and domestic firms. Weak analysis with little explanation of how FDI affects local businesses. No evaluation or generic comments. Level 2 (4-6 marks): Demonstrates accurate knowledge and understanding. Developed economic analysis of at least one positive and one negative impact of FDI on domestic producers. Offers some evaluation, but lacks depth or balance. Level 3 (7-9 marks): Demonstrates precise knowledge and understanding. Well-developed and coherent economic analysis of both positive and negative impacts. Evaluative comments are well-supported and balanced, leading to a reasoned conclusion about the overall impact, possibly considering government policies or industry sectors.

An increase in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) by multinational corporations (MNCs) can positively impact a developing country in several ways. First, MNCs establish new production facilities, which directly creates jobs for local workers. This reduces unemployment and increases household incomes, leading to higher consumer demand and domestic economic growth. Second, FDI facilitates technology and skills transfer. Local employees learn advanced managerial and technical skills, while local suppliers may upgrade their standards to meet the MNC's requirements, increasing overall domestic productivity. Third, MNCs pay corporate taxes and their workers pay income taxes, which increases government tax revenue. The host government can use these funds to improve public infrastructure, healthcare, and education, promoting long-term economic development.

Level 1 (1-2 marks): Identifies basic benefits of FDI/MNCs (e.g., job creation, technology) with limited development or explanation. Level 2 (3-4 marks): Explains these benefits with some application to a developing country context. Logical chains of reasoning are present but incomplete. Level 3 (5-6 marks): Offers a detailed and structured analysis of the positive impacts, with fully developed chains of reasoning linking FDI to employment, productivity growth, or tax revenue, well-applied to a developing country context.

### Indicative Content

**Arguments showing the positive impacts of MNCs on a developing country:**
* **Employment creation:** MNCs build factories and offices, which directly creates jobs for local citizens. This helps to reduce unemployment and can increase average household incomes.
* **Technology and skill transfer:** MNCs often introduce advanced production techniques and modern technologies. Local workers receive training, which improves the overall human capital and productivity of the host nation.
* **Contribution to GDP and infrastructure:** The investment in physical plants increases Aggregate Demand (AD) and drives economic growth. MNCs often invest in local infrastructure (roads, energy, ports) to facilitate their operations, which benefits other local businesses too.
* **Balance of Payments (BoP) improvement:** If the MNC manufactures products for export, this increases the value of the country's exports, leading to an improvement in the current account of the balance of payments.

**Arguments showing the negative impacts of MNCs on a developing country:**
* **Repatriation of profits:** While MNCs generate profits in the developing country, these profits are often sent back (repatriated) to the home country, reducing the net wealth retained in the host country.
* **Exploitation of local resources and labor:** MNCs might take advantage of weak labor laws and lower minimum wages in developing countries, paying low wages and offering poor working conditions. They may also deplete or damage local natural resources (externalities).
* **Crowding out local businesses:** Large, highly efficient MNCs can outcompete local firms who lack the economies of scale. This can force domestic firms to close, leading to structural unemployment.
* **Tax avoidance:** Through creative accounting and transfer pricing, MNCs may shift profits to low-tax jurisdictions, meaning the government might not collect as much tax revenue as expected, despite offering incentives.

**Evaluation / Crucial factors affecting the outcome:**
* **Government regulation:** The net impact depends heavily on how well the host government regulates the MNCs. Strong environmental laws and minimum wage regulations can mitigate the negative externalities, while strict tax compliance checks prevent tax avoidance.
* **Type of industry:** If the MNC is in a high-tech sector, the potential for technology transfer is high. If it is purely extractive (e.g., mining), the benefits might be short-lived with higher negative externalities.
* **Sourcing of materials:** If the MNC sources raw materials from local suppliers, it creates a positive multiplier effect (backward linkages). If it imports all components, the benefits to the wider domestic economy are limited.

### Marking Grid (12 Marks)

* **Level 1 (1–4 marks) - Knowledge, Application, and Analysis:**
* Identifies basic advantages/disadvantages of MNCs locating in a developing country.
* Little development of analysis; points are listed rather than fully explained.
* Simple, undeveloped chains of reasoning.

* **Level 2 (5–8 marks) - Detailed Analysis and Initial Evaluation:**
* Explains several positive and negative impacts of MNCs in detail.
* Clear chains of economic reasoning showing how MNCs affect employment, GDP, local firms, or the BoP.
* Evaluation is present but may lack depth or balance, or may not lead to a supported conclusion.

* **Level 3 (9–12 marks) - Comprehensive Evaluation and Synthesis:**
* Provides a highly structured response showing deep, balanced analysis of both sides.
* Evaluative points are fully developed (e.g., discussing 'depends on' factors like government policy, type of industry, or tax avoidance).
* Leads to a well-reasoned, balanced conclusion summarizing the overall economic impact based on the arguments presented.