2025 IB DP Psychology 模擬試題連答案詳解

Oxytocin is a hormone produced in the hypothalamus and released into the bloodstream by the pituitary gland. It acts both as a hormone in the body and as a neurotransmitter in the brain, and it plays a vital role in human social behaviours such as trust, empathy, and social bonding. Trust is essential for cooperative human relationships, but it carries a risk of betrayal. Oxytocin is believed to facilitate trust by downregulating the activation of the amygdala, the brain area responsible for processing fear and threat detection, thereby reducing the psychological fear of betrayal.

A key study investigating this effect is Baumgartner et al. (2008). The aim of the study was to investigate the role of oxytocin after trust had been broken in a social game. Participants played a 'trust game' in which they acted as investors. They had to decide whether to keep money or share it with a trustee. If they shared it, the money was tripled, and the trustee then decided whether to share the profits (cooperate) or keep all the money (betrayal). Participants received either an oxytocin nasal spray or a placebo.

Using fMRI scans, researchers monitored the participants' brain activity. During the game, participants were given feedback that their trust had been breached in 50% of the trials. The results showed that participants in the placebo group became much less trusting and reduced their investments after learning of the betrayal. In contrast, participants who received oxytocin continued to invest at similar rates, maintaining high levels of trust even after being betrayed. The fMRI scans revealed that the oxytocin group had decreased activation in both the amygdala and the caudate nucleus (which is associated with learning and memory of trust-related decisions).

This study demonstrates how oxytocin influences human behaviour. By reducing activity in the amygdala, the hormone dampens the emotional processing of fear and the threat of betrayal. This biological mechanism allows individuals to maintain trust and continue social cooperation despite receiving negative feedback or experiencing betrayal.

Marks are awarded out of 9, using the official IB Psychology Short Answer Question (SAQ) rubric:

- **1 to 3 marks**: The response is relevant to the question but is descriptive rather than explanatory. Knowledge of the hormone or the behaviour is limited or lacks accuracy. The study is mentioned but not clearly described or linked to the hormone's influence.
- **4 to 6 marks**: The response is clear and focused. It identifies a specific hormone and describes its influence on human behaviour. A relevant study is described, but the integration or explanation of how the study supports the biological mechanism is incomplete or lacks depth. Psychological terminology is used but may not be fully precise.
- **7 to 9 marks**: The response is well-structured, highly accurate, and focused. It clearly explains how the specified hormone influences human behaviour by explaining the underlying biological process. A highly relevant study is described accurately (including aims, methods, results, and conclusion) and is seamlessly integrated to support the explanation. Precise psychological and biological terminology is used consistently throughout.

Schema theory is a cognitive theory proposing that our mind organizes information into mental frameworks called 'schemas.' A schema is a structured cluster of pre-existing knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about objects, people, or situations, built up from past experiences. These schemas act as cognitive shortcuts that help us quickly process, interpret, and simplify the vast amount of incoming information we encounter daily. However, because schemas lead us to expect certain elements in specific environments, they can also cause distortions during cognitive processes such as memory encoding and reconstruction.

A classic study demonstrating how schemas influence memory reconstruction is the 'Office Study' conducted by Brewer and Treyens (1981). The aim of this study was to investigate whether the recall of objects in an office is influenced by the participants' pre-existing schema of what an office typically contains.

Thirty-one graduate students were asked to wait individually in an office room for approximately 35 seconds. The room was arranged to contain a mix of typical 'schema-consistent' office items (such as a desk, calendar, and typewriter) and highly atypical 'schema-inconsistent' items (such as a skull, a picnic basket, and a bark-covered block of wood). Crucially, some highly expected office items, like books, were completely omitted from the room. After waiting, participants were moved to another room and asked to write down everything they could remember from the office.

The results revealed that most participants successfully recalled typical office items that were actually present. However, many participants also falsely recalled items that were *not* present but were highly consistent with an office schema, such as books and papers. Furthermore, many participants failed to recall the atypical, schema-inconsistent items like the skull, although some remembered them due to their novelty.

This study clearly illustrates schema theory by showing that human memory is not a passive recording device. Instead, memory is an active, reconstructive process. When participants tried to retrieve information about the office, they filled in the gaps of their actual sensory memory with their pre-existing schema-based expectations (expecting books to be there). This demonstrates that cognitive schemas directly shape and distort memory reconstruction.

Marks are awarded out of 9, using the official IB Psychology Short Answer Question (SAQ) rubric:

- **1 to 3 marks**: The response demonstrates a basic understanding of schema theory but lacks clear definitions of key concepts. A study is mentioned, but its description is weak, and there is little to no explanation of how it demonstrates schema theory.
- **4 to 6 marks**: The response provides a clear explanation of schema theory and its effects on cognitive processing. A relevant study is described, but the link between the study's findings and the theoretical mechanisms of schemas is not fully developed or articulated.
- **7 to 9 marks**: The response is highly focused and accurate. It defines schema theory and explains how schemas act as mental frameworks that reconstruct memory. A relevant study is accurately described (aims, method, results) and integrated seamlessly to explain how the empirical evidence supports schema theory. Psychological terminology is used effectively and precisely.

A cultural dimension, as identified by Geert Hofstede, is a scale or spectrum representing a core value or preference of a culture, which distinguishes it from other cultures and shapes the behaviour of its members. One prominent cultural dimension is Individualism versus Collectivism. In individualistic cultures (such as the US or the UK), individuals prioritize personal goals, independence, and unique identity; emotional expression is encouraged, and personal experiences are highly valued. In collectivistic cultures (such as China or Japan), individuals define identity through group membership and prioritize social harmony and collective needs; emotional restraint is encouraged to avoid disrupting group dynamics.

This cultural dimension can influence cognitive behaviours, specifically the formation of flashbulb memories (FBMs)—which are highly vivid, detailed, and long-lasting memories of the circumstances surrounding learning about a shocking public event.

Kulkofsky et al. (2011) conducted a study to investigate if there was a difference in the rate of flashbulb memories between collectivistic and individualistic cultures. The sample consisted of participants from five countries: China (collectivistic), and Germany, Turkey, the UK, and the USA (all relatively more individualistic). Participants were given five minutes to recall as many public events as possible occurring in their lifetime. They then completed a questionnaire assessing the personal significance of the event, their emotional intensity, and how often they had rehearsed or talked about the event.

The researchers found that in individualistic cultures, personal importance and emotional intensity were strong predictors of the formation of flashbulb memories. However, in collectivistic cultures like China, personal importance and emotional intensity played a much smaller role in predicting FBM creation. Because collectivistic values discourage individuals from focusing heavily on their personal emotional reactions or sharing them openly, members of these cultures engage in less internal and social rehearsal of their personal feelings, reducing the likelihood of forming vivid flashbulb memories.

This study explains how the cultural dimension of Individualism vs. Collectivism influences human cognitive behaviour. The cultural value placed on personal emotions in individualistic cultures drives individuals to rehearse events more, creating stronger cognitive traces, whereas collectivistic cultural values lead to emotional suppression and a lower rate of flashbulb memory formation.

Marks are awarded out of 9, using the official IB Psychology Short Answer Question (SAQ) rubric:

- **1 to 3 marks**: The response identifies a cultural dimension but provides a vague or superficial explanation of its characteristics or its influence on behaviour. A study is mentioned but lacks detail or a clear connection to the cultural dimension.
- **4 to 6 marks**: The response clearly outlines a cultural dimension and explains its general influence on human behaviour. A relevant study is described, but the link between the dimension, the study's findings, and the specific behaviour is not fully developed.
- **7 to 9 marks**: The response is highly focused and structured. It defines the cultural dimension precisely and explains how it influences a specific human behaviour. A relevant study is accurately and thoroughly described (aims, method, results) and is integrated seamlessly to illustrate and support the theoretical explanation. Appropriate psychological terminology is used throughout.

An excellent essay response should be structured as follows:

1. **Introduction**:
- Define acculturation as the process of cultural and psychological change resulting from contact between different cultures.
- Introduce John Berry's (1997) acculturation model, detailing the four strategies: integration (maintaining heritage culture while adopting dominant culture), assimilation (abandoning heritage culture for dominant culture), separation (maintaining heritage culture and rejecting dominant culture), and marginalisation (rejecting both cultures).
- Define acculturative stress (the psychological impact of adaptation) and state the central thesis: the choice of acculturation strategy and the presence of external stressors significantly influence psychological and behavioural outcomes.

2. **Body Paragraph 1: Explaining the Theory**:
- Describe how the interaction between heritage and host cultures creates unique psychological demands.
- Explain how integration is generally viewed as the most adaptive strategy, leading to the lowest acculturative stress, while marginalisation is the least adaptive, leading to high stress, anxiety, and depression.

3. **Body Paragraph 2: Supporting Study 1 (Lueck & Wilson, 2010)**:
- **Aim**: To investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a nation-wide sample of Asian immigrants and Asian Americans.
- **Method**: Semi-structured interviews with 2,095 Asian Americans. The researchers measured acculturative stress, language proficiency, social networks, and discrimination.
- **Results**: Around 74% of the sample reported acculturative stress. Bilingualism, low discrimination, and strong family cohesion were significant protective factors that reduced acculturative stress. Conversely, English-only proficiency and high discrimination predicted higher stress.
- **Link**: This demonstrates that the linguistic and social elements of the acculturation process directly influence psychological well-being (stress behaviour).

4. **Body Paragraph 3: Supporting Study 2 (Torres et al., 2012)**:
- **Aim**: To investigate the relationship between integration, discrimination, and acculturative stress in Latino Americans.
- **Method**: Correlational study involving questionnaires measuring levels of acculturative stress, depressive symptoms, perceived discrimination, and acculturation strategy.
- **Results**: High levels of discrimination positively correlated with high acculturative stress, which in turn led to depressive symptoms. However, participants who preferred an integration strategy experienced significantly lower levels of stress and depression compared to those who used separation or assimilation.
- **Link**: This supports Berry's model by showing that integration acts as a buffer against negative behavioural and emotional outcomes when navigating a new host culture.

5. **Critical Evaluation**:
- **Methodological limitations**: Most research on acculturation is correlational, meaning cause-and-effect relationships cannot be definitively established. Self-report measures (questionnaires, interviews) may suffer from social desirability bias or retrospective bias.
- **Construct validity**: Acculturation is a highly dynamic and complex process that is difficult to operationalise and measure objectively.
- **Generalisability**: Many studies focus on specific immigrant groups in Western contexts (e.g., the US), meaning findings may not apply globally or to other demographic groups.
- **Ethical considerations**: Researching vulnerable migrant populations requires high sensitivity regarding confidentiality and potential stigmatisation.

6. **Conclusion**:
- Summarise the main arguments: Acculturation strategies heavily dictate how individuals adapt to new environments. While integration generally yields the healthiest behavioural outcomes, external factors like discrimination play a massive role in shaping this journey.

The essay is marked out of 22 using the official IB Psychology HL/SL rubric:

- **Criterion A: Focus on the question (2 marks)**:
- 2 marks: The topic of the essay (acculturation and its influence on behaviour) is clearly identified, and the response is highly focused on the demands of the question throughout.
- 1 mark: The response is partially focused on the question but contains irrelevant information.

- **Criterion B: Knowledge and understanding (6 marks)**:
- 5-6 marks: Excellent knowledge and understanding of acculturation, Berry's model, and acculturative stress. Relevant psychological concepts are clearly explained.
- 3-4 marks: Good knowledge and understanding, but some key details or concepts may be missing or described superficially.
- 1-2 marks: Limited or inaccurate knowledge of acculturation.

- **Criterion C: Use of research (6 marks)**:
- 5-6 marks: Relevant and well-described studies (e.g., Lueck & Wilson, Torres et al.) are used effectively to support the main points. The link between the studies and the prompt is explicit.
- 3-4 marks: Relevant research is cited but lacks detail, or the connection to the essay prompt is weak.
- 1-2 marks: Descriptive accounts of studies with little relevance to acculturation.

- **Criterion D: Critical thinking (6 marks)**:
- 5-6 marks: Excellent critical evaluation. Discussion of methodological limitations (correlational designs, self-report scales), construct validity, and alternative explanations is nuanced and well-integrated.
- 3-4 marks: Some critical evaluation is present but is descriptive or generic (e.g., 'the study lacks ecological validity' without further explanation).
- 1-2 marks: Little to no critical thinking or evaluation.

- **Criterion E: Clarity and organisation (2 marks)**:
- 2 marks: The essay is well-structured, logical, and easy to follow. Psychological terminology is used correctly.
- 1 mark: The essay has some structure but is disorganized in parts, making it difficult to follow.

Introduction: Define relationship formation and introduce the cognitive approach, focusing on the Similarity-Attraction Hypothesis and cognitive projection. Explain that cognitive explanations focus on mental representations, schemas, and perception of compatibility. Body Paragraph 1: Explain the Similarity-Attraction Hypothesis. Explain that individuals are attracted to those who share similar attitudes, values, and beliefs because it validates their own cognitive schemas and worldview, minimizing cognitive dissonance and maximizing predictability. Body Paragraph 2: Describe Markey and Markey (2007). Aim: To investigate the role of similarity in romantic relationships. Method: Self-report questionnaires where young adults described their own personality, their ideal partner's personality, and their actual partner's personality. Results: Participants preferred partners who were highly similar to themselves in terms of warmth and agreeableness. This supports the idea that similarity is a cognitive template for attraction. Body Paragraph 3: Explain the Attraction-Similarity Model (Morry, 2005). Morry argues that individuals first feel attracted to someone and then cognitively project their own characteristics onto them, perceiving them as similar even if they are not. This highlights the subjective, cognitive construction of similarity. Body Paragraph 4: Evaluation. Strengths of cognitive explanations include strong empirical support, high predictive validity for initial attraction, and practical applications in relationship counseling and online matching services. Limitations include reliance on self-report methods which can suffer from social desirability bias, correlation vs. causation issues (does similarity cause attraction, or does attraction lead to perceived similarity?), and reductionism (ignoring biological factors like pheromones/MHC genes and sociocultural factors like physical proximity). Conclusion: Summarize how cognitive factors like perceived similarity play a major role in the initial stages of relationship formation, but are best understood when integrated with biological and sociocultural approaches.

Criterion A: Focus on the question (2 marks) - To achieve 2 marks, the essay must be consistently focused on cognitive explanations for relationship formation throughout. Criterion B: Knowledge and understanding (6 marks) - High-level answers demonstrate accurate, detailed, and relevant knowledge of cognitive concepts (e.g., similarity-attraction, cognitive consistency, projection) and how they explain relationship formation. Criterion C: Use of research (6 marks) - Excellent answers use relevant studies (e.g., Markey and Markey, 2007; Morry, 2005) to support the explanations, clearly describing their aim, method, findings, and link to the essay prompt. Criterion D: Critical thinking (6 marks) - Outstanding essays critically evaluate the cognitive explanations, discussing methodological limitations (e.g., correlational designs, self-reports), alternative biological or sociocultural explanations, and bidirectionality. Criterion E: Clarity and organisation (2 marks) - Well-structured, coherent essays with a logical flow receive 2 marks.