Welcome to Language Variation and Change
Hello and welcome! If you have ever heard someone complain that "text speak is ruining English," or that young people are "getting lazy with their words," you have already encountered attitudes to language variation and change.
This chapter is a crucial part of Paper 2: Section A (Language Diversity and Change) for your AQA A-Level English Language exam (7702). In the exam, Section A offers you a choice of two evaluative essay questions. It is worth 30 marks: 10 marks for AO1 (applying linguistic methods and terminology) and 20 marks for AO2 (evaluating concepts and issues). Don't worry if this seems a bit daunting at first—we are going to break everything down step-by-step so you can tackle these essays with total confidence!
1. The Core Battle: Prescriptivism vs. Descriptivism
At the heart of almost every debate about the English language lies a clash between two fundamentally different perspectives.
A. Prescriptivism
• What is it? The belief that there is one "correct" standard of English (Standard English) that holds higher value than all other varieties.
• The View on Change: Prescriptivists view language change as a process of decay, corruption, or decline.
• Everyday Analogy: Think of a prescriptivist like a strict traffic warden. They believe that without strict rules, communication will crash into total chaos!
B. Descriptivism
• What is it? An evidence-based, objective approach that describes how language is actually used in the real world without making moral judgments.
• The View on Change: Descriptivists see language change as a natural, inevitable process of evolution.
• Everyday Analogy: Think of a descriptivist like a wildlife documentary maker. They simply observe, record, and explain how the language behaves in its natural habitat.
C. Deborah Cameron: Verbal Hygiene
Linguist Deborah Cameron coined the term "verbal hygiene" to describe the human "urge to meddle in language." Cameron argues that when people attempt to clean up or regulate language (whether through traditional prescriptive grammar rules or modern debates around political correctness), they are actually projecting their social, moral, and political values onto words.
Key Takeaway for Section 1: Prescriptivists want to tell people how they should speak to prevent decay, while descriptivists analyze how people do speak because change is natural. Cameron's "verbal hygiene" explains the social drive behind trying to control language.
2. Historical Milestones: How Did We Get Here?
People have been arguing about "proper English" for centuries! Here are three vital historical moments you should know:
• 1712 – Jonathan Swift: The famous author published a proposal to establish an "English Academy" to permanently "fix" the language and stop it from changing any further.
• 1755 – Samuel Johnson's Dictionary: When Johnson set out to write A Dictionary of the English Language, he hoped to stabilize English. However, in his famous preface, he conceded that words are like living things: "sounds are too volatile and subtile for legal restraints." He realized language cannot be frozen in time!
• 1762 – Robert Lowth: Lowth published A Short Introduction to English Grammar. This book established many of the classic prescriptive rules still argued over today, such as banning double negatives and forbidding the splitting of infinitives.
Did you know? Many of Lowth's 18th-century rules were based on Latin grammar, even though English is a Germanic language!
Key Takeaway for Section 2: Attempts to control English peaked in the 18th century with Swift's proposal (1712), Johnson's dictionary (1755), and Lowth's prescriptive grammar rules (1762).
3. Jean Aitchison: Myths and Models
In her 1996 Reith Lectures, linguist Jean Aitchison tackled public anxieties about language decay by identifying and dismantling three widespread prescriptivist myths.
The Three Prescriptivist Metaphors (and why Aitchison rejects them)
1. The Crumbling Castle Metaphor:
• The Myth: English was once a magnificent, perfect castle in a "golden age" that is now slowly crumbling into ruin.
• Aitchison's Counter-Argument: Language was never "complete" or "perfect" at any single point in history. It is constantly adapting to the needs of its speakers.
2. The Damp Spoon Metaphor:
• The Myth: Language change happens because people are lazy (like leaving a wet, sticky spoon in a sugar bowl). People often point to speech shortcuts like glottal stops as "sloppy."
• Aitchison's Counter-Argument: Language shortcuts are actually examples of efficiency, not laziness. Humans naturally streamline pronunciation to communicate quickly and smoothly.
3. The Infectious Disease Metaphor:
• The Myth: "Bad" or non-standard language catches on like a nasty virus, infecting innocent speakers against their will.
• Aitchison's Counter-Argument: People do not catch language changes accidentally. Speakers actively choose to adopt new words, slang, or accents because they want to signal identity, fit in, or gain social prestige.
Aitchison's PIDC Model: How Change Spreads
Aitchison also created a handy four-stage model to describe how a new language feature becomes part of standard usage. You can remember this using the acronym PIDC:
• P – Potential: A need or gap appears in the language (e.g., a new invention or social concept requires a label).
• I – Implementation: A small group of speakers starts using the new feature or word.
• D – Diffusion: The feature spreads outwards to the wider population through social networks and media.
• C – Codification: The change becomes official and is recorded in dictionaries and grammar guides.
Key Takeaway for Section 3: Aitchison disproves the ideas that language is decaying (Crumbling Castle), lazy (Damp Spoon), or contagious (Infectious Disease). Instead, change spreads systematically through Potential, Implementation, Diffusion, and Codification.
4. Other Key Theories of Language Change
To write a rich AO2 evaluation, you should draw on a variety of theoretical viewpoints explaining why and how language evolves:
A. David Crystal's Tide Metaphor
Linguist David Crystal compares language change to the ocean tide. The tide comes in and washes out: it brings new words, phrases, and structures onto the shore, while sweeping older ones away. The process is continuous, natural, and neither inherently good nor bad. Most importantly, the "beach" (the English language) remains intact!
B. Charles Hockett's Random Fluctuation Theory
Charles Hockett argued that language change is driven by instability and unpredictable events. Random errors, speech slips, or sudden cultural fashions occur by chance; when other speakers pick up and imitate these fluctuations, the language shifts over time.
C. Substratum Theory
This theory explains that language changes when it comes into direct contact with other languages. Historical events such as trade, invasion, and immigration introduce new vocabulary, sounds, and grammatical structures into the primary language.
Key Takeaway for Section 4: Crystal emphasizes that change is neutral like the tide, Hockett highlights random errors and trends, and Substratum Theory focuses on language contact through migration and trade.
5. AQA Exam Technique: Nailing Paper 2 Section A
Let's look at how to turn this knowledge into a top-band essay!
Understanding the Mark Breakdown
• Total Marks: \(30\text{ marks}\)
• AO1 (10 marks): Use accurate linguistic terminology and clear, structured expression. Don't just write a general opinion piece—analyze language levels such as lexis (vocabulary), semantics (meaning), grammar (sentence structures), and phonology (sounds).
• AO2 (20 marks): Demonstrate critical understanding of linguistic concepts, theories, and public attitudes.
Common Pitfalls to Avoid
• The "Prescriptivist Rant" Trap: Avoid simply calling prescriptivists "wrong" or "stupid." High-scoring essays explain why prescriptivist attitudes exist (e.g., maintaining a standardized language is useful for national education, law, international communication, and clarity).
• Name-Dropping Without Application: Do not just write: "Aitchison says the damp spoon theory..." Always explain how the theory directly answers the specific essay prompt.
• Confusing Diversity and Change: Keep your focus sharp. If a question asks about technology driving language change, stay focused on that driver rather than drifting entirely into unrelated diversity topics like regional accents or gender.
Quick Essay Revision Checklist
• Have I defined the key terms in the prompt (e.g., prescriptivism/descriptivism)?
• Have I balanced my argument by showing multiple viewpoints?
• Have I used precise AO1 terminology (e.g., lexical change, phonological reduction, codification)?
• Have I supported my points with historical context (Swift, Johnson, Lowth) and modern theories (Aitchison, Cameron, Crystal, Hockett)?