AQA A Level English Language (7702): International Varieties of English
Welcome to your complete revision guide for International Varieties of English! This topic sits right inside Paper 2, Section A (Language Diversity and Change). In the exam, you may choose to write an evaluative 30-mark essay exploring how English is used, adapted, and spread across the globe.
Don't worry if this topic feels massive at first. We are going to break down the key models, global linguistic processes, attitudes, and exam strategies step by step so you can write a high-scoring, evaluative essay with confidence!
1. Core Models of World Englishes
Linguists have designed visual models to classify how English spread around the world and how different communities use it. Examiners love to see you evaluate these models rather than just memorising them!
A. Kachru’s Three Circles Model (1985/1992)
Braj Kachru divided World Englishes into three concentric circles based on historical spread and how norms are established:
• The Inner Circle (ENL - English as a Native Language): Includes countries like the UK, USA, and Australia. These varieties are traditionally seen as norm-providing, meaning standard grammar rules and dictionaries historically originated here.
• The Outer Circle (ESL - English as a Second Language): Includes countries like India, Singapore, and Nigeria, where English spread primarily through British colonialism. These varieties are norm-developing, meaning they have developed their own recognized standards, local vocabulary, and grammar rules.
• The Expanding Circle (EFL - English as a Foreign Language): Includes countries like China, Russia, and Brazil, where English is learned for practical reasons like international trade, business, diplomacy, and science. These varieties have historically been considered norm-dependent, relying on Inner Circle standards for teaching.
Evaluating Kachru:
Strength: It was revolutionary because it acknowledged Outer Circle Englishes (like Indian English or Singaporean English) as legitimate varieties rather than "incorrect" English.
Limitation: It is geographically and historically rigid. Today, the circles are "leaking." For example, many speakers in the Expanding Circle (such as in the Netherlands or Scandinavia) use English with near-native fluency in daily life, functioning more like Outer Circle speakers. Additionally, it gives the impression that the Inner Circle holds linguistic ownership over English.
B. Schneider’s Dynamic Model (2007)
Edgar Schneider looked at how post-colonial varieties evolve over time through a five-stage evolutionary process. It shows how identity shifts from seeing English as a "foreign" language to a "local" one:
• Stage 1: Foundation – English is brought to a new territory by settlers or colonial rulers. Bilingualism is very limited.
• Stage 2: Exonormative Stabilization – English is established as the language of law, administration, and elite education. The "norm" is strictly outward-looking (exonormative), relying on the standards of the home colonising nation (e.g., standard British English).
• Stage 3: Nativization – Settlers and local communities interact more deeply. English mixes with indigenous languages, and new distinctive lexical and phonological features begin to emerge.
• Stage 4: Endonormative Stabilization – The new variety gains self-confidence and cultural independence. It becomes self-norming (endonormative), producing its own local dictionaries, literature, and accepted grammar rules.
• Stage 5: Differentiation – The variety is now fully established, and internal variation (regional dialects, sociolects, and stylistic registers) develops within the country.
Memory Trick for Schneider’s Stages: Remember the acronym FENED (Foundation, Exonormative, Nativization, Endonormative, Differentiation).
C. McArthur’s Circle of World English (1987)
Tom McArthur proposed a "wheel" model:
• The Hub: At the centre sits an idealised concept called World Standard English (an internationally intelligible standard).
• The Middle Band: Radiating outward are regional standards (e.g., British English standard, American English standard, West African standard).
• The Outer Band: Radiating further outward are localized sub-varieties, pidgins, and creoles.
Key Takeaway for Section 1: Never just describe a model in your essay. Always evaluate it! Discuss whether models like Kachru's still reflect modern global communication or if dynamic models like Schneider's offer a better explanation of how varieties evolve.
2. Global Communication & English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)
Today, non-native speakers of English vastly outnumber native speakers. This has shifted the primary function of English on the global stage.
What is English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)?
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) refers to English used as a practical contact language between speakers who do not share a first language (for example, a German businessperson speaking English to a Japanese engineer). In ELF contexts, the main goal is mutual intelligibility (understanding each other) rather than copying native British or American speech.
Jennifer Jenkins & The Lingua Franca Core (2000)
Linguist Jennifer Jenkins researched how people communicate internationally and proposed the Lingua Franca Core. She identified features that are essential for global intelligibility versus those that native speakers use but are not actually necessary for international communication:
• Core Features (Essential for intelligibility): Most consonant sounds, vowel length contrasts (e.g., the difference between ship and sheep), and maintaining initial consonant clusters.
• Non-Core Features (Not essential): The "th" sounds (dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/). If an international speaker pronounces think as sink or tink, understanding rarely breaks down! Jenkins argues that teachers and examiners should not penalise non-core variations in international contexts.
Key Takeaway for Section 2: ELF shifts the focus from "sounding like a native speaker" to practical international intelligibility. Native English speaker norms are no longer the only benchmark of successful communication.
3. Language Contact: Pidgins, Creoles, and the Continuum
When distinct language communities come into contact—often historically through trade or colonial rule—new varieties develop rapidly.
Pidgins vs. Creoles
• Pidgin: A simplified, contact language created out of necessity between groups who share no common tongue (frequently used for basic trade). A pidgin has no native speakers and possesses a reduced vocabulary and simplified grammar.
• Creole: A stable, natural language that develops when a pidgin is passed down to children and becomes the native mother tongue of a community (for example, Jamaican Patois). Creoles develop complex, fully formed grammar systems and extensive vocabularies.
The Post-Creole Continuum (Derek Bickerton)
In societies where a Creole exists alongside a Standard variety of English, language usage falls along a continuous spectrum known as the Post-Creole Continuum:
• Acrolect: The variety closest to the standard language, carrying high social prestige (often used in formal education, government, and broadcasting).
• Mesolect: The middle variety on the spectrum, displaying a mix of standard and local creole features (used in everyday informal conversations).
• Basilect: The variety furthest from the standard language, retaining the most creole features and carrying the lowest social prestige in formal institutions.
Analogy: Think of the continuum like a thermometer. The Acrolect is at the top (formal standard), the Basilect is at the bottom (broad creole), and the Mesolect is everywhere in between.
Key Takeaway for Section 3: Creoles are not "broken" English; they are fully rule-governed, systematic languages that evolved out of historical contact situations.
4. Power, Politics, and Language Attitudes
Linguistic Imperialism (Robert Phillipson, 1992)
Phillipson argues that the global dominance of English is not a neutral accident. Instead, Linguistic Imperialism suggests that the worldwide spread of English is a top-down imposition that reinforces Western economic and political power. It can marginalise local indigenous languages and cultures, leading in some cases to language endangerment or loss.
The Difference vs. Deficit View
In your exam essays, examiners look closely at the perspective you adopt when analysing global varieties:
• Deficit View (Prescriptivist): Viewing international varieties, Outer Circle Englishes, or Creoles as "improper," "broken," or "incorrect" English that fails to meet Inner Circle standards.
• Difference View (Descriptivist): Understanding that international varieties (such as Indian English or Singlish) have their own regularised, systematic grammatical patterns, pragmatic markers, and lexical borrowings that reflect local cultural identity.
Key Takeaway for Section 4: Always write from an objective, descriptivist (difference) perspective. Acknowledge the tension between English as an empowering tool for international trade versus English as an imperialist threat to local linguistic diversity.
5. Paper 2 Section A: Exam Strategy and Common Pitfalls
Mastering the Assessment Objectives
Section A asks you to write an evaluative essay marked out of 30:
• AO1 (Methods of Language Analysis / Terminology / Coherence): Use accurate linguistic terms (e.g., phonology, syntax, lexis, endonormative, lingua franca, acrolect) and write in a structured, fluent academic style.
• AO2 (Critical Evaluation of Concepts and Theories): Engage critically with theories, debates, and research. Don't just list what Kachru or Schneider said; debate whether their theories work in the modern digital and globalised world!
Data and Examples in Essays
Even though Section A is an essay without an accompanying text, top-band answers bring in specific linguistic examples (data) to illustrate theoretical points, such as:
• Specific lexical borrowings or idioms from Outer Circle Englishes (e.g., in Indian English or Singlish).
• Grammatical adaptations in contact varieties.
• Phonological adjustments in Lingua Franca communication (referencing Jenkins).
Common Pitfalls to Avoid
• Pitfall 1: Falling into the Deficit Trap. Never refer to international varieties as "slang," "lazy," or "bad grammar." Always frame them as rule-bound, systematic varieties.
• Pitfall 2: Treating Kachru's Circles as Fixed Borders. Remember to mention that global mobility, the internet, and English as a Lingua Franca make these boundaries porous and fluid.
• Pitfall 3: Theory Dumping Without Evaluation. Simply describing Schneider’s five stages without linking them back to the specific essay question will cap your AO2 marks. Always evaluate why the model is useful or where it falls short.
• Pitfall 4: Ignoring ELF. International English is not just about comparing British vs. American English. Make sure to discuss English as a global bridge language (ELF) and its impact on traditional native-speaker standards.
Quick Revision Checklist
Before entering the exam, make sure you can:
• Define and evaluate Kachru’s Three Circles (Inner, Outer, Expanding).
• List and explain the 5 stages of Schneider’s Dynamic Model.
• Explain the purpose of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) and Jenkins’ Lingua Franca Core.
• Distinguish between a pidgin and a creole, and explain Bickerton’s Post-Creole Continuum (Acrolect, Mesolect, Basilect).
• Discuss Linguistic Imperialism (Phillipson) versus the practical benefits of global communication.