2024 CCEA GCSE Geography 3910 模拟试题及答案详解

(a) Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface soaks/moves down into the soil.
(b) Within the drainage basin system, infiltration is classed as a transfer, since it moves water from one part of the system (the surface) to another (the soil), rather than storing it permanently or removing it from the system.

(a) 1 mark: infiltration correctly defined as water moving from the surface into the soil. (b) 1 mark: correctly identified as a transfer; [2]

(i) Attrition matches description B: rock particles being carried by the river collide with each other and with the river bed/banks, gradually wearing each other down and becoming smaller and more rounded.
(ii) Traction matches description A: large rocks and boulders, too heavy to be lifted by the river's flow, are rolled along the river bed.

1 mark: (i) correctly matched to B; 1 mark: (ii) correctly matched to A; [2]

(a) The four-figure grid reference for grid reference 460 211 is found by taking the first two digits of the easting (46) and the first two digits of the northing (21), giving grid square 4621.
(b) Moving from 452 218 to 468 205, the easting increases from 452 to 468 (a movement east), while the northing decreases from 218 to 205 (a movement south, since northings increase towards the north). Combining these, the river flows in a general south-easterly direction.
(c) A settlement such as Ashford Mill may have originally developed here because it offered flat, low-lying land suitable for building, or because it was the site of a natural bridging point or ford where the river could be crossed easily, making it a good location for trade routes to meet.

(a) 1 mark: 4621 correctly given. (b) 1 mark: south-east/SE correctly stated. (c) 1 mark: any valid locational reason given (flat land/bridging point or ford/trade route access); [3]

The data show that the maximum flood discharge recorded was very similar before and after the scheme (340 cumecs in 2015 compared with 345 cumecs in 2023 — actually slightly higher after the scheme). However, the length of time the river remained above bankfull level (i.e. the time land alongside the river was at risk of flooding) fell dramatically, from 18 hours in 2015 to only 6 hours in 2023, a reduction of two thirds. This suggests the flood defence scheme has been effective, not by reducing the volume of water the river has to carry during a flood, but by reducing the duration of flooding — likely because the straightened, deepened channel allows floodwater to be carried away from the area more quickly, and the flood walls contain higher water levels within the channel, both reducing the time floodwater spends above the riverbanks and therefore reducing the scheme's overall impact on people and property.

1 mark: correctly notes discharge was similar/slightly higher after the scheme, with values quoted; 1 mark: correctly notes the large reduction in time above bankfull level, with values quoted; 1 mark: valid evaluative conclusion drawn, linked to how the scheme (straightening/flood walls) achieves this; [3]

A waterfall typically forms where a river crosses a band of hard, resistant rock overlying softer, less resistant rock. As the river flows over this point, the softer rock beneath is eroded more rapidly than the hard rock above it, mainly through hydraulic action (the sheer force of the falling water) and abrasion (rock fragments carried by the water wearing away the riverbed). This differential erosion undercuts the hard rock layer, creating an overhang. Eventually, the unsupported overhang of hard rock becomes too weak to support its own weight and collapses under gravity into the plunge pool below. This process of undercutting and collapse repeats over time, causing the waterfall to gradually retreat upstream and leaving behind a steep-sided gorge downstream of its current position. Meanwhile, a deep plunge pool forms at the base of the waterfall, carved out by the continued hydraulic action and abrasion of the falling water and the rock debris it carries.

1 mark: correctly identifies hard rock overlying soft rock as the starting point; 1 mark: correctly explains differential erosion (hydraulic action/abrasion) undercutting the soft rock; 1 mark: correctly explains the resulting overhang collapsing; 1 mark: correctly explains retreat upstream over time, leaving a gorge; 1 mark: correctly explains formation of a plunge pool; [5]

River flooding has both physical and human causes. Physically, prolonged or unusually heavy rainfall can saturate the ground, reducing further infiltration and greatly increasing surface runoff into river channels, raising discharge beyond the river's capacity. Impermeable underlying geology (such as clay) can worsen this by preventing infiltration in the first place, while a steep drainage basin relief causes rainfall to reach the river channel very quickly as rapid surface runoff, producing a 'flashy' hydrograph response. Human causes also contribute: urbanisation covers the drainage basin with impermeable surfaces such as roads, roofs and pavements, which increase surface runoff and reduce infiltration; deforestation removes vegetation that would otherwise intercept rainfall; and building on floodplains, while not causing flooding itself, greatly increases the number of people and amount of property exposed to flood risk.

A case study illustrating these causes is the flooding of the Somerset Levels in winter 2013-2014. An exceptionally wet and prolonged period of rainfall over several weeks saturated the ground and raised river levels across the low-lying Somerset Levels. This physical cause was worsened by the fact that local rivers, including the River Tone and River Parrett, had not been dredged for a number of years, reducing their capacity to carry floodwater away, so land remained flooded for a prolonged period, affecting farmland, roads and properties across the area.

1 mark: valid physical cause of flooding correctly explained (heavy/prolonged rainfall, impermeable geology, or steep relief); 1 mark: valid human cause of flooding correctly explained (urbanisation/impermeable surfaces, deforestation, or floodplain development); 1 mark: named case study correctly identified (e.g. Somerset Levels 2013-2014); 1 mark: specific detail from the case study linking physical cause(s) to the flooding; 1 mark: specific detail from the case study linking human cause(s)/contributing factors to the flooding; [5]

A well-known example of river management outside the British Isles is the management of the Mississippi River in the USA, which has historically relied heavily on hard engineering methods. Extensive systems of levees (raised embankments) have been built along much of the river's length to contain floodwater within the channel and protect the towns, cities and farmland along its banks. In places, the river channel has also been straightened and dredged to increase its capacity and speed the passage of floodwater downstream.

These hard engineering methods have been effective in many respects: levees have protected large areas of valuable farmland and many settlements from the frequent flooding that would otherwise occur along such a large river, allowing continued economic use of the floodplain. However, the effectiveness and sustainability of this approach can be questioned. Levees are extremely costly to build and to maintain over such a long river system, and if they fail (for example during an exceptionally large flood event), the resulting flooding can be sudden and catastrophic, since floodwater that would previously have spread gradually across a natural floodplain is instead released suddenly when a levee breaches. Channel straightening and levee construction also speed the passage of floodwater downstream, which can increase flood risk for communities further down the river that are not as well protected. Because of these drawbacks, an approach that also incorporates soft engineering, such as restoring wetlands and washlands to store floodwater naturally, is likely to be more sustainable in the long term, working with rather than against the river's natural processes, at lower ongoing cost, and with less damage to natural habitats than a purely hard engineering approach.

Level 3 (5-6 or 7-8 marks depending on scale): Thorough, well-developed evaluation naming a specific scheme outside the British Isles, with accurate description of engineering methods used, balanced discussion of both effectiveness AND limitations, and an explicit, well-reasoned judgement on sustainability; wide range of accurate geographical terminology; fluent, well-organised prose; almost faultless SPaG. Level 2 (Limited/Sound): Competent description of a named scheme and methods used, with some evaluation of effectiveness, but limited depth/balance (e.g. limitations or sustainability judgement underdeveloped); good SPaG. Level 1 (Basic): General, undeveloped points about river management with limited or no reference to a specific named scheme/case study; basic SPaG. Capping rule: response capped at Level 1 if no named case study/place is identified. [7]

(a) Constructive waves have a strong swash (the movement of water up the beach) but a weak backwash (the movement of water back down the beach), so more material is deposited on the beach than is removed, building the beach up over time. Destructive waves, by contrast, have a weak swash but a strong backwash, so they remove more material from the beach than they deposit, eroding it.
(b) Material is transported along a coastline by the process of longshore drift.

(a) 1 mark: correct distinction drawn between constructive (strong swash/weak backwash, deposits) and destructive (weak swash/strong backwash, erodes) waves. (b) 1 mark: longshore drift correctly named; [2]

(i) A spit matches description B: it is a finger of sand or shingle, built up by longshore drift depositing material, that extends out from the coastline, sometimes curving (forming a hooked spit) where wave or wind direction changes near its end.
(ii) A stack matches description A: it forms when continued erosion causes an arch's roof to collapse, leaving an isolated pillar of rock separated from the headland.

1 mark: (i) correctly matched to B; 1 mark: (ii) correctly matched to A; [2]

(a) The four-figure grid reference for 512 634 is found by taking the first two digits of the easting (51) and northing (63), giving grid square 5163.
(b) Moving from 508 630 to 516 638, the easting increases from 508 to 516 (a movement east) and the northing increases from 630 to 638 (a movement north). Combining these, the direction is north-east.
(c) The flat land at the top of the cliffs could reasonably be used for farmland/agriculture, since it is flat and suitable for cultivation, while being set back from the immediate cliff edge where ongoing erosion poses a risk to permanent buildings.

(a) 1 mark: 5163 correctly given. (b) 1 mark: north-east/NE correctly stated. (c) 1 mark: any valid land use with a plausible reason (farmland, footpath/tourism, grazing); [3]

The data show that the average annual rate of coastline retreat fell sharply after the groynes were installed, from 1.8 m per year (2010-2015) to just 0.3 m per year (2016-2023) — a reduction of around 83%. This strongly suggests that the groynes have been effective as a coastal management method at this location. Groynes work by trapping sand and shingle that would otherwise be moved away along the coast by longshore drift, building up a wider beach in front of the coastline. This wider beach absorbs more wave energy before it can reach and erode the cliffs or coastline behind it, reducing the rate of erosion, consistent with the large fall shown in the data. However, it should be noted that groynes can sometimes have a negative effect elsewhere: by trapping sediment at this location, they may starve beaches further along the coast (in the direction of longshore drift) of the sand and shingle they would otherwise have received, potentially increasing erosion rates there instead.

1 mark: correctly quotes both figures and calculates/describes the large reduction in erosion rate; 1 mark: correctly explains how groynes reduce erosion (trapping sediment/widening beach/absorbing wave energy); 1 mark: valid evaluative point about limitations (e.g. starving beaches further along the coast of sediment); [3]

A headland, being more exposed than the bays on either side of it, experiences wave attack from multiple directions. Erosion processes, particularly hydraulic action (the force of waves compressing air in cracks) and abrasion (rock fragments wearing away the cliff face), exploit lines of weakness such as cracks and joints in the headland's rock, gradually widening them into a cave. If the headland is narrow enough, continued erosion can cause caves forming on either side to meet and break through, creating an arch through the headland. Erosion continues to undercut and widen the base of this arch, and as the roof of the arch becomes increasingly unsupported, it eventually collapses under its own weight. This leaves an isolated pillar of rock standing separate from the headland, known as a stack. Over time, continued erosion at the base of the stack may undercut it too, eventually causing it to collapse and leaving behind only a low stump, visible mainly at low tide.

1 mark: correctly explains the headland's exposure to erosion from multiple directions; 1 mark: correctly explains formation of a cave through erosion exploiting weaknesses; 1 mark: correctly explains formation of an arch as caves break through; 1 mark: correctly explains collapse of the arch roof to form a stack; 1 mark: correctly explains further collapse to eventually form a stump; [5]

One example of a hard engineering method is a sea wall: a solid, often curved concrete or rock structure built along the base of a cliff or the top of a beach, designed to reflect wave energy back out to sea and to physically prevent waves from reaching and eroding the land behind it. Sea walls are effective at directly protecting the specific stretch of coastline behind them, making them well suited to protecting towns or important infrastructure. However, they are very expensive to construct and to maintain, and by reflecting wave energy rather than absorbing it, they can increase erosion at their ends, or along unprotected stretches of coastline further along, where the reflected wave energy is directed instead.

One example of a soft engineering method is beach nourishment: sand or shingle, often transported in from elsewhere (such as offshore dredging), is added to an existing beach to widen and build it up. This wider beach absorbs wave energy naturally before it can reach the coastline or cliffs behind it, reducing erosion. Beach nourishment works with the coast's natural processes rather than against them and generally looks more natural than hard structures, often benefiting tourism. However, since the added material is subject to the same natural processes (particularly longshore drift) that removed material from the beach in the first place, beach nourishment must be repeated regularly, adding to its long-term cost.

1 mark: hard engineering method correctly named and described (e.g. sea wall/groynes/gabions); 1 mark: valid evaluation of the hard engineering method (effectiveness AND at least one limitation); 1 mark: soft engineering method correctly named and described (e.g. beach nourishment/managed retreat); 1 mark: valid evaluation of the soft engineering method (effectiveness AND at least one limitation); 1 mark: valid overall comparative point made between the two approaches; [5]

A coastal management scheme from the British Isles is that used at Newcastle, County Down, a seaside town with a popular sandy beach that is vulnerable to coastal erosion and storm damage. Hard engineering methods, including a promenade and sea defences such as groynes and sections of sea wall, have been used along the seafront to protect the town, its properties and its beach from wave erosion and storm surges.

These methods have been broadly effective in the short-to-medium term at protecting valuable economic assets: the town's tourism industry, businesses and properties along the seafront are directly protected from erosion and storm damage, and the groynes help retain sand on the beach itself, an important tourist attraction. However, evaluating this against the principles of sustainability raises some concerns. Hard engineering structures such as sea walls and groynes are expensive to build and require ongoing maintenance, an increasing long-term financial commitment. They can also alter the natural appearance and processes of the coastline, and, as with hard defences elsewhere, may simply shift erosion problems to unprotected stretches of coast nearby rather than solving them. As sea levels continue to rise due to climate change, purely hard engineering approaches may become less sustainable in the very long term compared with an approach that also incorporates softer, more adaptable methods (such as beach nourishment or planning for managed retreat in the most vulnerable areas), which work with natural coastal processes rather than permanently fixing the coastline in place.

Level 3 (6-7 marks): Thorough, well-developed evaluation naming a specific British Isles scheme, with accurate description of engineering methods used, balanced discussion of effectiveness AND limitations, and an explicit, well-reasoned judgement on sustainability; wide range of accurate geographical terminology; fluent prose; almost faultless SPaG. Level 2: Competent description of a named scheme and methods, with some evaluation, but limited depth or balance in the sustainability judgement; good SPaG. Level 1: General, undeveloped points with limited or no reference to a specific named scheme/place. Capping rule: response capped at Level 1 if no named case study/place is identified. [7]

(a) Weather refers to the short-term, day-to-day conditions of the atmosphere at a particular place, such as today's temperature or rainfall. Climate refers to the average weather conditions of a place, measured over a long period of time, typically 30 years or more.
(b) Atmospheric pressure is measured using a barometer, in units of millibars (mb).

(a) 1 mark: weather and climate correctly distinguished (short-term/day-to-day vs long-term average). (b) 1 mark: barometer and millibars both correctly stated; [2]

(i) A rain gauge measures precipitation (C), collected and measured in millimetres.
(ii) An anemometer measures wind speed (A), typically in knots.
(iii) A wind vane measures wind direction (B), typically to one of eight compass points.

1 mark for two or three correct matches; 0 marks for zero or one correct; [2] (award full 2 marks only if all three correct, 1 mark if any two correct)

The data at 12:00 correspond to the warm sector of the depression. At this time, the temperature is at its highest of the three readings (13°C), cloud cover is at its lowest (4 oktas) and there is no precipitation — all typical of the warm sector, which lies between the warm front and the cold front of a frontal depression and is dominated by relatively warm, often partly cloudy or clear conditions. This fits with the sequence shown: at 09:00, as the warm front is passing over, there is steady rain and a lower temperature (8°C); by 15:00, as the cold front passes through, temperature has dropped again (9°C) and precipitation has returned as showery rain, both typical of conditions at a cold front.

1 mark: 12:00 correctly identified as the warm sector; 1 mark: correct reference to at least two relevant values from the table (e.g. highest temperature/lowest cloud cover/no precipitation); 1 mark: correctly links the wider pattern (steady rain/lower temperature at 09:00 as the warm front passes, showery rain/temperature drop at 15:00 as the cold front passes) to identify the warm sector by elimination; [3]

The data show that the hurricane weakened steadily and rapidly as it moved further inland: its category fell from 4 at landfall (wind speed 215 km/h, extreme damage) to category 2 after 6 hours, category 1 after 12 hours, and only tropical storm strength (80 km/h, minor damage) after 24 hours. This rapid weakening occurs because hurricanes are powered by heat energy and moisture evaporated from warm ocean water; once the storm crosses onto land, it is cut off from this ocean energy source. In addition, the greater surface friction encountered over land (compared with the smoother ocean surface) disrupts and weakens the storm's circulation further, causing it to lose strength quickly the further inland it travels.

1 mark: correctly describes the trend of decreasing wind speed/damage level with time/distance inland, quoting values; 1 mark: correctly identifies loss of the ocean energy/moisture source as the hurricane moves over land; 1 mark: correctly identifies increased surface friction over land as a contributing factor; [3]

Latitude affects climate because it determines how directly the sun's radiation strikes the Earth's surface. Locations near the equator (low latitude) receive solar radiation that is more concentrated, since the sun is high in the sky for most of the year, spreading its energy over a smaller surface area; these locations also experience little variation in day length across the year. This gives equatorial and low-latitude locations consistently high average temperatures. Locations at higher latitude receive more oblique (spread out, less concentrated) solar radiation, since the sun sits lower in the sky, and experience much greater seasonal variation in day length (very long summer days but very short winter days). This gives higher-latitude locations lower average temperatures and much more distinct seasons.

Altitude also affects climate: temperature generally decreases with increasing altitude, because air becomes less dense and less able to retain heat at higher elevations. As a result, mountainous or high-altitude areas are typically cooler than low-lying areas at the same latitude, and may experience conditions such as snow cover even in regions where lowland areas nearby do not.

1 mark: correctly explains lower latitude receives more concentrated/direct solar radiation; 1 mark: correctly links this to higher average temperature near the equator; 1 mark: correctly explains higher latitude receives less concentrated radiation and greater seasonal day-length variation, giving lower temperature/more distinct seasons; 1 mark: correctly states temperature decreases with increasing altitude; 1 mark: correctly explains the reason (air less dense/less able to retain heat at altitude) and/or gives a valid consequence (e.g. cooler mountain climates); [5]

As a frontal depression approaches a location, thin, high cloud gradually thickens and lowers as the warm front approaches, atmospheric pressure begins to fall, and steady, often prolonged, rain develops, while temperature remains relatively cool as cooler air is still present at the surface.

As the warm front itself passes over and the location enters the warm sector, the steady rain stops or eases considerably, cloud cover decreases, and temperature rises noticeably as warmer (often tropical maritime) air moves in at the surface; pressure tends to level off during this period.

As the cold front then approaches and passes over, temperature drops suddenly as colder air pushes in beneath and displaces the warm sector air, cloud builds rapidly, often into towering cumulonimbus clouds, and a period of short but heavy, showery rain occurs, sometimes accompanied by strong, gusty winds and even thunder. Once the cold front has fully passed, conditions typically clear, showers become less frequent, and pressure begins to rise again.

1 mark: correctly describes conditions as the warm front approaches (thickening/lowering cloud, falling pressure, steady prolonged rain); 1 mark: correctly describes conditions in the warm sector (rain easing, less cloud, rising temperature); 1 mark: correctly describes the temperature drop as the cold front arrives; 1 mark: correctly describes cloud/precipitation associated with the cold front (cumulonimbus, heavy/showery rain, possibly strong winds); 1 mark: correctly describes conditions clearing/pressure rising after the cold front passes; [5]

A well-documented example of extreme weather outside the British Isles is Hurricane Katrina, which struck the southern United States, including the city of New Orleans, in 2005. The hurricane brought both violent winds and a severe storm surge, which caused several levees protecting New Orleans (much of which lies below sea level) to fail, leading to catastrophic flooding across large areas of the city.

The impacts on people were severe: many people lost their lives, particularly among those unable to evacuate before the storm, and hundreds of thousands of residents were displaced from their homes, with many never returning to live in the city again. The impacts on property and infrastructure were also extensive: large numbers of homes were destroyed or made uninhabitable by the flooding, and key infrastructure, including roads, power supplies and hospitals, was severely damaged, disrupting the emergency response itself.

Evaluating the overall scale of impact, Hurricane Katrina is widely regarded as one of the costliest natural disasters in US history, both in terms of the human cost (loss of life and long-term displacement of communities) and the economic cost of rebuilding housing, businesses and infrastructure, a process that took many years and, in some neighbourhoods, was still incomplete a decade or more after the storm. The disaster also highlighted how existing social inequalities could worsen the impact of extreme weather, since poorer residents were often less able to evacuate in advance or to rebuild afterwards, illustrating that the impacts of extreme weather on people are not always felt equally across a population.

Level 3 (6-7 marks): Thorough, well-developed description AND evaluation naming a specific event outside the British Isles, covering impacts on BOTH people and property with specific detail, including a developed evaluative judgement on the scale/severity of impact; wide range of accurate terminology; fluent prose; almost faultless SPaG. Level 2: Competent description of impacts on people and property for a named event, with some evaluation, but limited depth or balance; good SPaG. Level 1: General, undeveloped points about extreme weather impacts with limited or no reference to a specific named event. Capping rule: response capped at Level 1 if no named case study is identified. [7]

(a) From the centre outwards, the Earth's four main layers are the inner core, the outer core, the mantle and the crust.
(b) Tectonic plates are moved by convection currents within the mantle. Heat from the Earth's core causes hot mantle material to rise, move sideways beneath the crust, cool, and sink again, forming convection cells; the drag of this circulating mantle material against the base of the tectonic plates above causes the plates to move.

(a) 1 mark: all four layers correctly named in order (inner core, outer core, mantle, crust). (b) 1 mark: convection currents in the mantle correctly identified as the cause of plate movement; [2]

(a) The focus of an earthquake is the point underground where the earthquake originates — the point where rocks first fracture and release energy. The epicentre is the point on the Earth's surface located directly above the focus.
(b) Earthquake magnitude is measured on the Richter scale, using readings recorded by a seismograph.

(a) 1 mark: focus and epicentre both correctly distinguished. (b) 1 mark: Richter scale and seismograph both correctly named; [2]

Rock sample A is igneous, since it is formed from cooled molten magma or lava, which is the defining process by which igneous rocks such as basalt and granite form.
Rock sample B is sedimentary, since it is formed from compacted and cemented layers of sediment; the presence of fossils in sample B is also a classic indicator of a sedimentary rock, as fossils form and are preserved within layers of sediment as they are deposited and compacted (as in limestone or sandstone).
Rock sample C is metamorphic, since it is described as existing rock that has been altered by heat and pressure (the defining process forming metamorphic rocks such as slate and marble); the absence of fossils, despite the rock having formed from existing material, is explained by the fact that any original fossils would have been destroyed by the intense heat and pressure of the metamorphic process.

1 mark: A correctly identified as igneous, justified by formation from cooled magma/lava; 1 mark: B correctly identified as sedimentary, justified by compaction/cementation of sediment and/or presence of fossils; 1 mark: C correctly identified as metamorphic, justified by alteration of existing rock by heat/pressure and/or absence of fossils; [3]

Although both earthquakes shown in the table had the same magnitude of 6.5 on the Richter scale, their human and physical impacts were vastly different: Country Y (an LEDC) suffered approximately 20,000 deaths and hundreds of thousands of destroyed buildings, compared with only around 60 deaths and hundreds of destroyed buildings in Country X (an MEDC). This large difference is explained by the countries' different levels of economic development, reflected in their GDP per capita. MEDCs such as Country X typically have stricter building regulations, requiring earthquake-resistant construction techniques that allow buildings to withstand shaking without collapsing, and can afford well-equipped, well-trained emergency services and early warning systems that reduce loss of life. LEDCs such as Country Y typically have lower GDP per capita, meaning fewer resources are available to enforce or afford earthquake-resistant building standards, and emergency services and warning systems are often far less developed. As a result, an earthquake of the same physical magnitude causes vastly more destruction and loss of life in an LEDC than in an MEDC.

1 mark: correctly notes both earthquakes had the same magnitude but very different impacts, with values quoted; 1 mark: correctly explains that MEDCs have stricter building regulations/earthquake-resistant construction reducing impact; 1 mark: correctly explains that LEDCs have fewer resources for emergency response/preparedness, linked to lower GDP, increasing impact; [3]

Convection currents within the mantle, generated by heat rising from the Earth's core, drag the rigid tectonic plates of the crust above them, causing plates to move relative to one another. At a collision plate margin, two plates each carrying continental crust are moving towards each other. Unlike at a destructive margin (where dense oceanic crust can be subducted, forced down into the mantle beneath a less dense plate), continental crust is too thick and too buoyant to be subducted in this way, so neither plate sinks beneath the other. Instead, as the two continents continue to converge, the layers of sedimentary rock that lie between them — often originally deposited on the floor of an ocean that used to separate the two land masses before they collided — are intensely compressed. This compression folds and forces the rock layers upwards, over long periods of geological time, forming a high range of fold mountains, such as the Himalayas, formed where the Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate.

1 mark: correctly explains convection currents in the mantle drag/move the tectonic plates; 1 mark: correctly identifies a collision margin as involving two plates of continental crust moving towards each other; 1 mark: correctly explains that continental crust is too buoyant/thick to be subducted; 1 mark: correctly explains that sedimentary rock layers between the plates are compressed and folded; 1 mark: correctly explains that this folding/uplift forms fold mountains, with a valid named example (e.g. Himalayas); [5]

The 2010 Haiti earthquake provides a well-documented case study of an earthquake affecting an LEDC. It occurred along the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system, at a conservative (transform) plate margin where the Caribbean Plate and the North American Plate slide past one another.

The short-term impacts on people and the environment were severe: the earthquake caused widespread collapse of poorly-constructed buildings, particularly in the densely populated capital, Port-au-Prince, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths and many more injuries, and severely damaging infrastructure including roads, hospitals and government buildings, which hampered the immediate emergency response. In the longer term, very large numbers of people were left homeless and displaced, many living for years afterwards in temporary camps; a subsequent cholera outbreak, linked to poor sanitation in these camps, added a further public health crisis; and the country's economy and infrastructure took many years to begin significant recovery.

Evaluating Haiti's preparation and response, the country had limited earthquake-resistant building regulations and limited enforcement of those that did exist prior to the earthquake, meaning many buildings were not designed to withstand strong shaking. Haiti's emergency response capacity, including hospitals and trained search-and-rescue teams, was also limited relative to the scale of the disaster, meaning the country relied heavily on international aid organisations and foreign governments to support the immediate rescue and relief effort. In the longer term, reconstruction was slow, hampered by limited government funding and capacity, illustrating the much greater vulnerability of an LEDC such as Haiti to a major earthquake, compared with the stronger building codes and more developed emergency response infrastructure typically found in an MEDC.

Level 3 (6-7 marks): Thorough, well-developed response naming a specific earthquake, correctly identifying the plates/margin involved, describing BOTH short-term AND long-term impacts on people and the environment with specific detail, and a developed evaluation of preparation and response; wide range of accurate terminology; fluent prose; almost faultless SPaG. Level 2: Competent coverage of most of (a)-(c) for a named earthquake, with some specific detail, but limited depth or balance in places; good SPaG. Level 1: General, undeveloped points with limited or no reference to a specific named earthquake/place. Capping rule: response capped at Level 1 if no named case study is identified, or if only one of impacts/response is addressed. [7]

Statement 1 is true: in Stage 1 of the demographic transition model, both birth rates and death rates are high, so total population remains low and fluctuates.
Statement 2 is true: in Stage 2, death rates fall (due to improvements such as better healthcare and sanitation) while birth rates remain high, causing rapid population growth.
Statement 3 is false: in Stage 5, birth rates typically fall below death rates, leading to a declining, ageing population rather than continued rapid growth.
Statement 4 is true: a country in Stage 2 has high birth rates, so its population pyramid typically has a wide base, reflecting a high proportion of young people.

1 mark for each of Statements 1, 2 and 4 correctly ticked as true (up to 3 marks); if candidate also ticks Statement 3, deduct 1 mark from the total (to a minimum of 0); [3]

(i) A push factor matches C: a factor that drives people to leave their original location, such as conflict or a lack of jobs.
(ii) A pull factor matches A: a factor that attracts people to a new location, such as better job opportunities.
(iii) An economic migrant matches B: a person who moves to another country in search of better economic or employment opportunities, as distinct from a refugee, who moves due to persecution, conflict or a well-founded fear of danger.

1 mark for each correct match (i-C, ii-A, iii-B), up to 3 marks; [3]

The data show a clear contrast in population structure. Country M has a much smaller proportion of young people (16% aged 0-14) and a much larger proportion of elderly people (21% aged 65+) than Country L (40% aged 0-14, and only 4% aged 65+). This shows that Country M has an aged dependent population, which is typical of an MEDC: low birth rates reduce the proportion of young people, while advanced healthcare and a generally high standard of living allow people to live longer, increasing the proportion of elderly people. Country L, by contrast, has a youth dependent population, typical of an LEDC, where birth rates tend to remain higher and average life expectancy is generally shorter, giving a much larger proportion of young people and a much smaller proportion of elderly people.

1 mark: correctly describes Country M's smaller proportion of young/larger proportion of elderly people, with values quoted; 1 mark: correctly describes Country L's larger proportion of young/smaller proportion of elderly people, with values quoted; 1 mark: correctly explains Country M's pattern as an aged dependent population typical of an MEDC (low birth rate/long life expectancy); 1 mark: correctly explains Country L's pattern as a youth dependent population typical of an LEDC (higher birth rate/shorter life expectancy); [4]

Country P received far more asylum applications (150,000) than Country Q (8,000). This large difference is likely linked to the two countries' economic strength, shown by their GDP per capita: Country P has a high GDP per capita, meaning it can generally offer stronger pull factors to people seeking asylum, such as greater employment opportunities, better access to healthcare and education, and a higher overall standard of living and more developed social support systems. Country Q, with a lower GDP per capita, is likely to offer fewer such opportunities and resources, making it a less attractive destination for asylum seekers, resulting in far fewer applications being received.

1 mark: correctly notes the large difference in asylum applications with values quoted; 1 mark: correctly links this difference to the countries' differing GDP per capita; 1 mark: at least one valid pull factor identified (jobs/healthcare/education/standard of living); 1 mark: correctly explains why higher GDP enables stronger pull factors; [4]

Socially, an aged dependent population places greater demand and pressure on healthcare and social care services, since elderly people generally require more medical treatment and support with daily living than younger age groups, and this demand will grow as the elderly population grows.

Economically, an aged dependent population means a relatively smaller working-age population must support, through taxation, a larger number of dependents (both the young and, especially, the old). This can increase the tax burden on those still working, and places growing pressure on pension systems, which must pay out to a larger number of retired people for a longer period as life expectancy increases. An ageing population can also contribute to labour shortages in some sectors of the economy, as fewer working-age people are available to fill jobs, potentially slowing economic growth.

1 mark: valid social implication identified (increased demand for healthcare/social care); 1 mark: developed explanation of this social implication; 1 mark: valid economic implication identified (tax burden on workers/pressure on pensions/labour shortages); 1 mark: developed explanation of this economic implication; [4]

A well-documented case study is that of Syrian refugees arriving in Greece, many fleeing conflict in Syria from 2011 onwards. Refugees making this journey faced severe challenges: many undertook dangerous crossings of the Mediterranean or Aegean Sea in overcrowded, unsafe boats, risking their lives; on arrival, refugees often faced language barriers that made communication, finding work and accessing services difficult; many struggled to find secure long-term accommodation and employment, especially given local economic conditions; and many were separated from family members during their journey, while also sometimes facing discrimination or a hostile reception from parts of the host population.

Greece, as the destination country, also faced significant challenges. The large and sudden scale of arrivals placed severe pressure on housing, healthcare, education and welfare services, particularly in the islands and areas nearest the point of arrival, which often lacked the capacity to process and support such large numbers of people. Integrating refugees into local communities also presented social and, at times, political challenges, including tensions in some areas over resources and cultural differences. Processing large numbers of asylum claims was also costly and placed strain on Greece's administrative and legal systems, particularly as Greece was already facing economic difficulties of its own during this period.

Overall, this case study shows that migration on this scale creates genuine challenges for both the people migrating and the country receiving them, even though migration can also bring benefits to a destination country, such as new skills and cultural diversity, over the longer term.

Level 3 (6-7 marks): Thorough, balanced discussion naming a specific case study, covering multiple, well-developed challenges faced by BOTH refugees AND the destination country, with specific detail; wide range of accurate terminology; fluent prose; almost faultless SPaG. Level 2: Competent discussion of challenges for both refugees and the destination country for a named case study, but limited in balance or depth; good SPaG. Level 1: General, undeveloped points about migration challenges with limited or no reference to a specific named case study, or addressing only one side (refugees OR destination country). Capping rule: response capped at Level 1 if no named case study is identified or only one side of the two-part prompt is addressed. [7]

Statement 1 is true: the CBD is typically found at the centre of a settlement, where accessibility and demand for space are highest, giving it the highest land values.
Statement 2 is false: the rural-urban fringe is located at the outer edge of a settlement, where it meets the surrounding countryside, not at the centre; high-rise offices are typically found in the CBD, not the rural-urban fringe.
Statement 3 is true: the inner city is typically located close to the CBD and often contains older, higher-density housing built during earlier periods of urban growth.
Statement 4 is true: suburbs are typically located towards the edge of a settlement and are characterised by lower-density, more modern housing.

1 mark for each of Statements 1, 3 and 4 correctly ticked as true (up to 3 marks); if candidate also ticks Statement 2, deduct 1 mark from the total (to a minimum of 0); [3]

(i) Urbanisation matches B: the increasing proportion of a country's population living in urban (town/city) areas.
(ii) Shanty town matches A: an unplanned, informal settlement of makeshift housing, often lacking basic services such as clean water and sanitation, commonly found on the edge of cities in LEDCs.

1 mark: (i) correctly matched to B; 1 mark: (ii) correctly matched to A; [2]

The data show a clear pattern: both average building height and land use change systematically with increasing distance from the city centre. Close to the centre (0.5 km), buildings are tallest (8 storeys) and the dominant land use is offices/retail, typical of the Central Business District (CBD). Moving outward to 2 km, building height falls to 3 storeys and land use shifts to terraced housing and small industry, typical of the inner city. At 5 km, building height falls further to 2 storeys, with semi-detached housing dominant, typical of the suburbs. At 9 km, the furthest point surveyed, buildings are only 1-2 storeys, with detached housing and farmland dominant, typical of the rural-urban fringe.

This pattern occurs because land values are highest at the city centre, where demand for space and accessibility (for businesses wanting to reach the largest number of customers/workers) is greatest, but the amount of available land is very limited; building taller allows more floor space to be created from this limited, expensive land. Further from the centre, land is cheaper and more plentiful, so there is less economic pressure to build tall, allowing lower-density development such as suburban and rural-urban fringe housing.

1 mark: correctly describes building height decreasing with distance from the centre, with values quoted; 1 mark: correctly describes the change in land use with distance (CBD to inner city to suburbs to rural-urban fringe); 1 mark: correctly explains land values are highest at the centre due to demand/accessibility; 1 mark: correctly links high central land values to the need to build taller/more efficiently there; [4]

The data show that residents of this inner city area identify a range of issues as significant problems, rather than a single dominant one. Traffic congestion was identified most often (by 35% of residents), closely followed by poor-quality housing (28%). Lack of affordable parking (20%) and ethnic/cultural tensions (17%) were also identified by a substantial minority of residents, though less often than the top two issues. This spread of responses shows that inner city areas in MEDCs often face multiple, interlinked challenges relating to housing, traffic and cultural mix, rather than any one issue affecting all residents equally.

Poor-quality housing in inner city areas can be addressed through urban regeneration or gentrification schemes, in which older, run-down housing is renovated or redeveloped to a higher standard. Such schemes can directly improve the physical condition of housing stock and often attract further private investment into the wider area, though care must be taken to ensure existing residents can still afford to remain in the area once housing quality (and cost) improves.

1 mark: correctly identifies traffic congestion as the most commonly identified issue, with value quoted; 1 mark: correctly describes the range of other issues identified, with at least two further values quoted; 1 mark: valid method suggested for addressing poor-quality housing (regeneration/gentrification/redevelopment); 1 mark: developed explanation of how this method improves housing quality; [4]

Shanty towns typically develop because rapid rural-to-urban migration — people moving from the countryside to cities in search of better job opportunities and living standards — occurs faster than the city's formal housing sector can build enough affordable homes to accommodate the growing population. Many new migrants arrive with very low incomes and cannot afford formal housing or rented accommodation within the city. As a result, they build makeshift homes themselves, using cheap or salvaged materials, on whatever available land they can find. This is often on the edge of the city, or on land considered unsuitable or undesirable for formal development, such as steep slopes or land at risk of flooding, since such land is often unclaimed, cheap, or not effectively regulated by city authorities. Because these settlements grow up unplanned and outside formal urban planning control, they typically lack basic services such as clean piped water, sanitation and electricity, at least in their earliest stages.

1 mark: correctly identifies rapid rural-to-urban migration outpacing formal housing supply as the underlying cause; 1 mark: correctly explains that low-income migrants cannot afford formal housing; 1 mark: correctly explains that migrants build makeshift housing on available/unclaimed/unsuitable land, often on the city edge; 1 mark: correctly links this to the resulting lack of basic services in shanty towns; [4]

A well-known example of an urban planning scheme is the Titanic Quarter in Belfast, developed on former shipyard and industrial land close to Belfast's inner city. The scheme aimed to regenerate this large area of derelict, formerly industrial land by improving housing provision, creating new employment opportunities, improving transport links, and enhancing the overall environment of the waterfront area.

In several respects, the scheme has been successful: significant new housing, office space and mixed-use development have been built on land that was previously derelict, and cultural/tourist attractions, most notably the Titanic Belfast visitor centre, have been created, generating new employment opportunities in tourism, hospitality and other sectors, as well as raising the profile and image of the wider area. The physical environment of the waterfront has also been considerably improved compared with its former industrial state, including new public spaces and improved transport connections into the site.

However, the scheme's success can also be questioned in some respects. There have been concerns that new housing built within the Titanic Quarter has not always been affordable for existing residents of the surrounding, less affluent inner city communities, meaning the direct benefits of new housing may not have reached those who needed it most. Some critics have also questioned the pace of development relative to its original ambitions, and whether the economic benefits (new jobs, increased investment) have been felt evenly across the wider inner city area, or have remained concentrated within the development itself. Overall, while the Titanic Quarter has clearly transformed a large area of derelict land and created new economic and cultural value, its success in improving conditions for existing inner city residents specifically is more mixed.

Level 3 (6-7 marks): Thorough, balanced evaluation naming a specific scheme, with accurate description of its aims/features and a well-developed discussion of BOTH successes AND limitations, reaching a clear overall judgement; wide range of accurate terminology; fluent prose; almost faultless SPaG. Level 2: Competent description of a named scheme with some evaluation of success, but limited in balance or depth (e.g. successes covered well but limitations underdeveloped); good SPaG. Level 1: General, undeveloped points with limited or no reference to a specific named scheme/place. Capping rule: response capped at Level 1 if no named case study/place is identified. [7]

Statement 1 is false: the HDI combines economic AND social indicators, not economic indicators only.
Statement 2 is true: social indicators of development include measures such as literacy rate and life expectancy.
Statement 3 is true: the HDI combines economic indicators (such as GNI per capita) with social indicators (such as life expectancy and education), giving a more rounded picture of development than a purely economic measure.
Statement 4 is false: a high infant mortality rate is generally associated with a LESS developed country, since it reflects poorer healthcare, nutrition and sanitation, not a more developed one.

1 mark for each of Statements 2 and 3 correctly ticked as true (up to 2 marks); 1 mark if neither Statement 1 nor Statement 4 is incorrectly ticked; [3]

(i) Globalisation matches B: the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of countries around the world, through trade, investment, technology and culture.
(ii) BRICS matches A: an acronym referring to five major emerging economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.

1 mark: (i) correctly matched to B; 1 mark: (ii) correctly matched to A; [2]

The data show a substantial development gap between Country R and Country S across every indicator given. Country R has a far higher GNI per capita ($42,000 compared with $1,100), a considerably longer life expectancy (81 years compared with 58 years), a much higher adult literacy rate (99% compared with 62%), and almost universal access to safe drinking water (100% compared with only 54% in Country S). This shows Country R is more developed than Country S not only economically (GNI) but also socially (life expectancy, literacy, access to water).

Using several different indicators, rather than relying on just one (such as GNI per capita alone), gives a more complete and accurate picture of a country's true level of development. A purely economic indicator like GNI per capita measures a country's wealth, but does not directly show how that wealth translates into quality of life for its population — a country could, in principle, have relatively high average income but comparatively poor health or education outcomes if that wealth is not evenly distributed or well invested in public services. Combining economic indicators with social indicators, such as life expectancy, literacy and access to clean water, gives a much more rounded and reliable assessment of overall development.

1 mark: correctly describes the development gap using at least two economic/social values quoted from the table; 1 mark: correctly notes the gap exists across BOTH economic AND social indicators; 1 mark: correctly explains the limitation of relying on a single (economic) indicator; 1 mark: correctly explains the advantage of combining multiple indicators for a rounded picture of development; [4]

One factor that can hinder development in an LEDC is debt. Many LEDCs have borrowed large sums of money, often to fund infrastructure or development projects, or following periods of economic difficulty; a significant proportion of government revenue must then be used to repay this debt and the interest owed on it, leaving less money available to invest in essential services such as healthcare, education and infrastructure that would otherwise support development.

A second factor is dependence on primary activities. Many LEDC economies rely heavily on producing and exporting primary products, such as raw materials or agricultural produce, rather than manufactured goods or services. Prices for primary products on world markets tend to be low relative to manufactured goods, and can also fluctuate significantly from year to year depending on global supply and demand, making it difficult for these countries to earn a stable, sufficient income to invest in long-term development.

1 mark: debt correctly identified as a hindering factor; 1 mark: developed explanation of how debt hinders development (reduced spending on services); 1 mark: dependence on primary activities correctly identified as a hindering factor; 1 mark: developed explanation of how this hinders development (low/unstable prices limiting income); [4]

One example of an appropriate technology product is the Hippo Water Roller. It is a large, barrel-shaped container that can be rolled along the ground by pushing or pulling a handle, rather than being carried on the head or back, as is traditionally required to transport water in many areas without piped water supplies. This allows people, often women and children, who are typically responsible for collecting water, to transport a much larger volume of water (holding around 90 litres) more easily and with much less physical strain, over longer distances than they could manage carrying traditional containers. This saves considerable time and physical effort, which can instead be used for activities such as attending school or income-generating work, and reduces health problems, such as spinal and joint injuries, associated with carrying heavy loads on the head over long distances. The Hippo Water Roller is considered an appropriate technology because it is low-cost, uses simple, robust technology that does not require specialist skills or parts to maintain or repair, and is well suited to the resources and conditions of the communities that use it, making it a practical, sustainable solution that can genuinely help reduce the development gap at a local level.

1 mark: valid appropriate technology product correctly named (e.g. Hippo Water Roller/solar cooker); 1 mark: correctly describes how it functions/what problem it addresses; 1 mark: correctly explains the direct benefit(s) to users (time/effort/health saved); 1 mark: correctly explains why it counts as 'appropriate' technology (low-cost/simple to maintain/suited to local resources); [4]

India, a BRICS country, provides a well-documented example of how globalisation can both help and hinder development. Globalisation has helped India's development in several ways: increasing foreign direct investment and the outsourcing of services by companies from MEDCs (particularly in the IT, software and call centre/business process outsourcing sectors) has created large numbers of relatively well-paid jobs and raised incomes for many in India's growing urban middle class. Globalisation has also brought technology transfer and given Indian businesses access to much larger export markets around the world, contributing to strong rates of overall economic growth over recent decades.

However, globalisation has also hindered development in some respects, or at least created new challenges. The benefits of globalisation in India have not been evenly distributed: workers and regions connected to globalised sectors, such as major cities with strong IT industries, have generally benefited far more than rural areas or those working in more traditional sectors, contributing to growing inequality between different parts of Indian society. Some traditional industries and small-scale producers have also struggled to compete with cheaper goods produced elsewhere or with larger multinational competitors entering the Indian market, in some cases leading to job losses in these sectors. Rapid, globally-driven industrialisation and economic growth have also brought significant environmental costs, including increased pollution and pressure on natural resources, in some of India's fastest-growing urban and industrial areas.

Overall, India's experience shows that globalisation can be a powerful driver of economic development, but that its benefits are not automatically shared equally across a country's population, and that rapid globally-linked growth can bring its own social and environmental challenges alongside its economic benefits.

Level 3 (6-7 marks): Thorough, balanced discussion naming a specific BRICS country, covering how globalisation BOTH helps AND hinders development with specific, well-developed detail; wide range of accurate terminology; fluent prose; almost faultless SPaG. Level 2: Competent discussion covering both helping and hindering aspects for a named BRICS country, but limited in balance or depth; good SPaG. Level 1: General, undeveloped points with limited or no reference to a specific named BRICS country, or addressing only one side (helps OR hinders). Capping rule: response capped at Level 1 if no named BRICS country is identified or only one side of the two-part prompt is addressed. [7]

Statement 1 is true: the greenhouse effect is a natural process, in which certain gases in the atmosphere trap heat, keeping the Earth warm enough to support life.
Statement 2 is false: a person's carbon footprint refers to the TOTAL amount of greenhouse gases (usually expressed as CO2 equivalent) produced by all of their activities, not transport use alone.
Statement 3 is true: an enhanced greenhouse effect, caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases (such as CO2) released by human activities, is linked to global climate change.
Statement 4 is true: rising sea levels (caused by thermal expansion of seawater and melting ice) are a recognised potential effect of global climate change.

1 mark for each of Statements 1, 3 and 4 correctly ticked as true (up to 3 marks); if candidate also ticks Statement 2, deduct 1 mark from the total (to a minimum of 0); [3]

(i) Renewable energy source matches B: an energy source that is naturally replenished and will not run out, such as wind, solar or biofuels.
(ii) Waste hierarchy matches A: a ranked framework for managing waste, generally prioritising, in order: reduce, reuse, recycle.

1 mark: (i) correctly matched to B; 1 mark: (ii) correctly matched to A; [2]

The data show that both atmospheric CO2 concentration and average global temperature have risen consistently over the period shown: CO2 concentration rose from 317 ppm in 1960 to 354 ppm in 1990 and 414 ppm in 2020, while the average global temperature anomaly rose from +0.1°C in 1960 to +0.4°C in 1990 and +1.0°C in 2020. The two variables rise together throughout the period shown.

This link occurs because CO2 is a greenhouse gas: it allows short-wave solar radiation to pass through the atmosphere to warm the Earth's surface, but absorbs and re-radiates some of the outgoing long-wave (heat) radiation from the Earth's surface, trapping additional heat within the atmosphere (the enhanced greenhouse effect). As human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have increased the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, more heat has been trapped in this way, causing the rise in average global temperature shown consistently by the data over this period.

1 mark: correctly describes the rising trend in CO2 concentration, with values quoted; 1 mark: correctly describes the rising trend in temperature anomaly, with values quoted; 1 mark: correctly explains the greenhouse mechanism (CO2 trapping outgoing heat radiation); 1 mark: correctly links rising human CO2 emissions to the observed rise in global temperature; [4]

Wind power has several benefits as a renewable energy source. It is renewable, meaning it will not run out (unlike fossil fuels), and it produces no direct carbon dioxide emissions during operation, helping to reduce a country's overall contribution to climate change compared with fossil fuel power generation. Once built, wind turbines also have relatively low ongoing running costs, since no fuel needs to be purchased.

However, wind power also has disadvantages. It is an intermittent energy source, meaning electricity generation depends entirely on wind conditions; wind turbines cannot generate power when there is little or no wind, meaning wind power alone cannot reliably meet demand at all times, and must usually be backed up by other energy sources or energy storage. Wind farms can also have a significant visual impact on the landscape and can generate noise that affects nearby residents, and there are concerns about their potential impact on wildlife, particularly birds and bats. Finally, the initial cost of building wind turbines and connecting them to the electricity grid can be high, even though running costs are subsequently low.

1 mark: valid benefit(s) identified (renewable/no direct emissions/low running cost); 1 mark: developed explanation of at least one benefit; 1 mark: valid disadvantage(s) identified (intermittent/visual-noise impact/wildlife impact/high build cost); 1 mark: developed explanation of at least one disadvantage; [4]

Ecotourism is generally small-scale, involving limited numbers of visitors to a natural environment at any one time, in contrast to mass tourism, which typically involves very large numbers of visitors. Ecotourism aims to minimise environmental disturbance and often directly generates income that is reinvested into local conservation projects and local communities, encouraging both visitors and residents to value and protect the natural environment they depend on.

Mass tourism, by contrast, often requires extensive infrastructure development, such as large hotels, roads and other facilities, to accommodate the much larger numbers of visitors involved. This larger scale of development and visitor numbers tends to cause greater environmental damage, such as habitat destruction during construction, increased pollution (from transport, waste and sewage), and overuse of local resources such as water, and mass tourism developments do not always prioritise conservation or reinvest their profits back into protecting the local environment in the way ecotourism aims to. As a result, ecotourism is generally considered a more environmentally sustainable form of tourism than mass tourism.

1 mark: correctly describes ecotourism as small-scale, with limited visitor numbers; 1 mark: correctly explains that ecotourism income is reinvested in conservation/local communities; 1 mark: correctly describes mass tourism's larger scale and associated infrastructure development; 1 mark: correctly explains the greater environmental damage caused by mass tourism (habitat destruction/pollution/resource overuse); [4]

The 2015 International Climate Change Agreement, commonly known as the Paris Agreement, is an international agreement in which participating countries committed to work together to keep the rise in global average temperature well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, while pursuing efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C. Rather than imposing a single, universal set of targets, each country sets and submits its own nationally-determined targets (pledges) for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which are intended to be reviewed and strengthened over time.

Evaluating the agreement, it represents a significant achievement in international cooperation: it brought together a very large number of countries, at very different levels of development, around a shared, common goal of limiting global temperature rise, and established an ongoing framework in which countries are expected to review and increase the ambition of their commitments over successive cycles. This kind of broad, near-global agreement would have been difficult to imagine on previous climate agreements that involved fewer countries.

However, the agreement also has notable limitations. Because each country's emissions reduction targets are nationally determined and largely voluntary, the ambition and detail of these targets vary considerably between countries, and collectively they have often been judged insufficient, on their own, to reliably keep global warming within the agreement's stated limits. The agreement also lacks strong, binding enforcement mechanisms to compel a country that fails to meet its own pledged targets, relying instead largely on transparency, peer pressure and periodic review to encourage countries to increase their ambition over time. As a result, while the Paris Agreement represents an important framework and symbol of international commitment to addressing climate change, the overall pace of progress towards its temperature goals has, by most assessments, been slower than what scientists consider necessary.

Level 3 (6-7 marks): Thorough, accurate description of the agreement's aims/mechanism AND a well-developed, balanced evaluation covering BOTH strengths AND limitations, reaching a clear overall judgement; wide range of accurate terminology; fluent prose; almost faultless SPaG. Level 2: Competent description of the agreement with some evaluation, but limited in balance or depth (e.g. strengths covered well but limitations underdeveloped, or vice versa); good SPaG. Level 1: General, undeveloped points about climate change agreements/strategies with limited specific detail about the 2015 agreement itself. [7]

(a) The aim of the investigation was to investigate how selected characteristics of a river (such as channel width, velocity and discharge) change with distance downstream.
(b) One hypothesis tested was that river channel width increases with distance downstream.
(c) One physical risk associated with river fieldwork is slipping on wet rocks or the riverbank, or being swept away by fast-flowing or deep water. This risk can be reduced by wearing appropriate footwear with good grip (such as wellington boots), working in pairs or small groups under teacher supervision at all times, and avoiding entering fast-flowing or deep sections of the river.

(a) 1 mark: valid, clear aim stated. (b) 1 mark: valid, testable hypothesis stated. (c) 1 mark: valid physical risk AND a valid method of reducing it both given; [3]

(a) A primary source is data collected first-hand by the student themselves, through their own direct measurement or observation in the field. A secondary source is data or information that has already been collected or produced by someone else, which the student then makes use of within their own investigation.
(b) One secondary source used was an Ordnance Survey map of the river's course. This was used before the fieldwork to identify and select appropriate, accessible sampling sites at regular intervals along the river, allowing the sampling sites to be planned in advance rather than chosen on the day.

(a) 1 mark: primary and secondary sources correctly distinguished. (b) 1 mark: a valid secondary source named; 1 mark: a valid, specific use of that source in the investigation described; [3]

Systematic sampling was used to select the fieldwork sites, choosing sites at regular, equal intervals of distance downstream (for example, every 250 m along the river's course, starting from an initial upstream site).

This sampling method was chosen because it ensures the sites studied are spread evenly across the whole length of river being investigated, allowing a fair and representative comparison of how variables such as channel width, velocity and discharge change with distance downstream. This reduces the risk of bias that could arise from selecting sites at random or based on personal preference (for example, unconsciously choosing only easily accessible sites), which might not give a representative picture of how the river changes along its course.

1 mark: valid sampling method correctly named (e.g. systematic sampling at regular intervals); 1 mark: method correctly described with specific detail (e.g. interval distance/starting point); 1 mark: valid reason given for choosing this method (even spread/fair representative comparison/reduces bias); [3]

River velocity was measured using the float method: a floating object (such as an orange or piece of cork) was placed in the water at the upstream end of a measured section of the channel (for example, 5 m in length), and a stopwatch was used to time how long the object took to float down to the downstream end of the measured section. Velocity was then calculated by dividing the distance travelled by the time taken.

To ensure the measurements were accurate and reliable, this procedure was repeated three times at each site, and the mean of the three timed results was calculated and used as the recorded velocity for that site, reducing the effect of any single anomalous timing on the final result.

1 mark: valid piece of equipment/method correctly named (e.g. flow meter/float method); 1 mark: use of the equipment/method correctly described with specific detail; 1 mark: valid method of ensuring accuracy/reliability described (e.g. repeating measurements and taking a mean); [3]

(a) An appropriate graph for this data is a line graph. Distance downstream (m) would be plotted on the x-axis and river channel width (m) on the y-axis; a point would be plotted for each of the four sites at its correct distance/width coordinates, and these points would be joined with a line, typically with an appropriately labelled title, axes and units. A line graph is appropriate here because both distance downstream and channel width are continuous numerical variables, and a line graph clearly shows the trend or relationship between them — in this case, allowing the reader to see clearly that channel width increases with distance downstream.
(b) The total increase in width from Site 1 to Site 4 = 5.1 - 1.2 = 3.9 m. This increase occurred over 3 equal intervals of 250 m (from Site 1 to Site 2, Site 2 to Site 3, and Site 3 to Site 4, covering a total of 750 m). Mean increase per interval = 3.9 / 3 = 1.3 m.
(c) An alternative way to present this data would be a proportional symbol map, in which circles or bars, sized in proportion to the channel width recorded, are plotted directly onto a base map showing the river's actual course and the location of each site. This would be a useful alternative because it shows the fieldwork data within its real geographical/spatial context along the river, which a line graph alone does not show.

(a) 1 mark: line graph correctly named; 1 mark: correct axes described (distance on x-axis, width on y-axis); 1 mark: correct construction method described (plotting points, joining with a line); 1 mark: valid justification for why a line graph is appropriate (continuous data/shows trend clearly). (b) 1 mark: correct method shown (total increase / number of intervals); 1 mark: correct final answer of 1.3 m (ecf). (c) 1 mark: valid alternative graph/map type named (e.g. proportional symbol map/bar chart); 1 mark: valid reason given for this choice; [8]

River velocity was measured using the float method: a floating object was placed in the water at the upstream end of a measured section of the river channel, and a stopwatch was used to time how long it took to float down to the downstream end of that measured section; velocity was then calculated as the distance divided by the time taken, and this was repeated several times to obtain a set of results.

Of the five results given, 0.89 m/s is anomalous, since it is far higher than the other four results, which are all closely grouped together in the range 0.42-0.45 m/s. A possible reason for this anomaly is a timing error, for example the stopwatch being started or stopped at the wrong moment; alternatively, the floating object may have been carried into a faster-flowing part of the channel on that occasion (such as the deeper mid-channel current, where friction with the bed and banks is lowest), rather than following its usual, more representative path, or a gust of wind may have pushed the object along faster than the true water flow.

1 mark: valid data collection method correctly described (float method/flow meter with distance and time); 1 mark: 0.89 m/s correctly identified as the anomalous result; 1 mark: valid reason suggested for the anomaly (measurement/timing error, faster-flow location, or wind effect); 1 mark: reason explained with a specific, plausible mechanism; [4]

(a) \( \text{Discharge} = \text{cross-sectional area} \times \text{mean velocity} = 0.36 \times 0.20 = 0.072\,\text{m}^3/\text{s} \).
(b) The data show that discharge increases consistently with distance downstream at every site studied: from 0.072 m3/s at Site 1, to 0.294 m3/s at Site 2, 0.691 m3/s at Site 3, and 1.265 m3/s at Site 4. This pattern occurs because, as a river flows further downstream, it is generally joined by tributaries and receives additional water inputs from surface runoff and groundwater flow drawn from an increasingly large drainage basin area; as more of this water is added to the channel, the total volume of water flowing past any given point each second (the discharge) increases.

(a) 1 mark: correct discharge of 0.072 m3/s calculated. (b) 1 mark: correctly describes discharge increasing consistently with distance, with values quoted; 1 mark: correctly identifies a valid physical reason (tributaries/increasing drainage basin area/additional runoff-groundwater input); 1 mark: reason explained with clear links to the increasing volume of water in the channel; [4]

The evidence collected shows that both river channel width and discharge increased consistently with distance downstream at every site studied. Channel width rose from 1.2 m at Site 1 to 5.1 m at Site 4, while discharge rose from 0.072 m3/s at Site 1 to 1.265 m3/s at Site 4. This pattern is consistent with established geographical theory, which explains that as a river flows further downstream, it is joined by tributaries and receives additional water inputs from an increasingly large drainage basin area; this greater volume of water flowing through the channel causes both discharge and channel width (which must increase to accommodate the greater volume of water) to increase together.

This evidence supports the hypothesis stated in Question 1(b), that river channel width increases with distance downstream, since the fieldwork data show a clear, consistent increase in channel width at every one of the four sites studied, with no exceptions to this trend within the results collected.

1 mark: correctly summarises the increasing trend in width with values quoted; 1 mark: correctly summarises the increasing trend in discharge with values quoted; 1 mark: correctly links this pattern to relevant geographical theory (tributaries/drainage basin area); 1 mark: correctly and explicitly states the conclusion supports the stated hypothesis, with reference to the consistency of the evidence; [4]

One limitation of the float method, as it is typically carried out, is that it usually measures only the surface velocity of the water at a single point across the width of the channel. This may not accurately represent the true mean velocity across the whole cross-section of the river, since velocity naturally varies both with depth and with position across the channel — it is generally lower near the bed and banks, where friction with the channel is greatest, and higher away from these boundaries, such as near the centre of the channel and closer to the surface.

This limitation could be reduced if the investigation were repeated by taking velocity measurements at several points across the width of the channel (and, ideally, at different depths) at each site, and then calculating a mean of these readings to give a more representative value for the site's overall velocity, rather than relying on a single measurement taken at one location.

1 mark: valid limitation of the method correctly identified (single-point/surface measurement not representative of the whole cross-section); 1 mark: correctly explains why this is a limitation (velocity varies with depth/position across the channel); 1 mark: valid, specific improvement suggested (measuring at multiple points across width/depth); 1 mark: correctly explains how this improvement would give a more representative/reliable result; [4]

One way to extend the scope of this investigation would be to add further sampling sites further downstream, beyond the 750 m already studied, continuing towards the river's mouth. This would allow the investigation to test whether the trends observed in this study (increasing channel width and discharge with distance downstream) continue to hold true over a longer stretch of the river, or whether the relationship changes in some way further downstream.

Alternatively, the investigation could be extended by repeating data collection at the same sites at a different time of year, for example following a period of unusually heavy or unusually dry rainfall. This would allow comparison of how channel width, velocity and discharge at the same sites are affected by different weather and river flow conditions, adding an additional variable (season/rainfall conditions) to the original investigation.

1 mark: valid way to extend the investigation's scope identified (e.g. more/further sites, or repeating at a different time); 1 mark: developed explanation of how this would extend the investigation; 1 mark: correctly explains what additional insight this extension would provide; 1 mark: response shows clear understanding of how this builds on/relates to the original investigation; [4]