2024 Cambridge IGCSE Geography (0460) 模拟试题及答案详解

**(a)(i)**
Population density is the average number of people living per unit area of land (typically measured as people per square kilometre, \(\text{people/km}^2\)).

**(a)(ii)**
- Province with lowest population density: **Northern Highlands** (4 \(\text{people/km}^2\)).
- Province with largest total land area: **Southern Basin** (60 000 \(\text{km}^2\)).

**(a)(iii)**
From Fig. 1.1:
1. **Relief/Topography:** Eastern Plains has flat alluvial land which is easy to build upon and farm, whereas Northern Highlands has steep slopes/high relief.
2. **Soils:** Eastern Plains has deep, fertile soil supporting productive agriculture, whereas Northern Highlands has thin, rocky soils.
3. **Water/Climate:** Eastern Plains benefits from reliable rainfall for domestic and agricultural use.

**(b)(i)**
Two human/economic factors:
1. Availability of employment / industrial or service jobs.
2. Well-developed transport links / infrastructure (e.g. ports, motorways, railway hubs).

**(b)(ii)**
- Extreme cold or severe water deficit makes crop cultivation and livestock rearing extremely difficult or impossible, leading to food scarcity.
- Hostile climate conditions create severe health hazards (frostbite, hypothermia, dehydration, heat stroke).
- Construction of essential infrastructure (roads, water pipes, housing) is technically challenging and highly expensive (e.g. permafrost melting or desert shifting sands).

**(c) Case Study Answer:**
**Name of country:** Bangladesh
**Status chosen:** Overpopulation

Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with over 170 million people living in an area of approximately 147 570 \(\text{km}^2\).

*Causes:*
- **High Birth Rates & Natural Increase:** Historically high total fertility rates driven by traditional agricultural practices where children are viewed as an economic asset to work on farms.
- **Socio-cultural Factors:** Early marriage and historically lower levels of female literacy and access to family planning in rural districts like Sylhet and Rangpur.
- **Fertile Agricultural Land:** The fertile deltaic floodplains of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna rivers have historically attracted intensive agricultural settlement, concentrating millions in low-lying rural areas.
- **Rural-to-Urban Migration:** Environmental push factors (riverbank erosion, cyclones in the Bay of Bengal) force thousands of rural migrants daily into Dhaka, creating severe urban strain where infrastructure cannot support the population size.

**(a)(i) [1 mark]**
- Number of people per unit of land area / people per \(\text{km}^2\) / ratio of population to area (1).
*Note: Do not accept 'how crowded a place is' alone without reference to unit area.*

**(a)(ii) [2 marks]**
- Lowest density: Northern Highlands (1)
- Largest area: Southern Basin (1)

**(a)(iii) [3 marks]**
*1 mark per valid physical contrast from Fig. 1.1 (up to 3 marks):*
- Eastern Plains has flat land whereas Northern Highlands has steep slopes / high relief (1);
- Eastern Plains has deep/fertile soil whereas Northern Highlands has thin/rocky soil (1);
- Eastern Plains has reliable rainfall (1).
*Note: Must use evidence from Fig. 1.1 only. Direct copy/contrast accepted.*

**(b)(i) [2 marks]**
*1 mark per valid human/economic factor (up to 2 marks):*
- Job opportunities / employment in factories/offices (1);
- Good transport networks / accessibility (e.g. roads, railways, ports) (1);
- Access to services / schools / hospitals / universities (1);
- Reliable water supply/electricity grid infrastructure (1);
- Political stability / government investment (1).

**(b)(ii) [3 marks]**
*1 mark per point or developed point (3 @ 1 mark or 1 + DEV):*
- Difficult to grow crops / short growing season / frozen or dry ground (1);
- Lack of drinking water / frozen water supplies (1);
- Extreme temperatures cause health risks / hypothermia / heat exhaustion (1);
- Difficult / expensive to construct roads / transport links / houses (1);
- Remoteness / isolation from markets and major economic centres (1).

**(c) [7 marks] Levels of response marking:**
- **Level 1 (1–3 marks):** Simple statements outlining general causes of over/underpopulation (e.g. high birth rate, lack of contraception, small land area, not enough resources). Generic, no specific place context.
- **Level 2 (4–6 marks):** Developed statements explaining why specific factors lead to overpopulation/underpopulation (e.g. explains how high fertility rates combined with traditional agrarian reliance on child labour and limited land area cause resources to become strained).
*(Max 5 marks if no named country or inappropriate scale/example).*
- **Level 3 (7 marks):** 3 or more developed Level 2 statements plus precise place-specific details (e.g. named country, specific regions/cities like Dhaka/Sylhet, accurate data on area, population, or specific cultural/climatic context).

To achieve Level 3 (7 marks), candidates must provide: 1. A named, relevant country (e.g. China). 2. At least three developed points (Level 2) explaining specific strategies and their socio-economic/demographic impacts. 3. Accurate, place-specific details (e.g. One-Child Policy, minimum marriage age 22/20, drop in fertility rate from 5.8 to 1.6, '4-2-1' dependency structure, granny police, gender imbalance ratio ~118:100). Generic statements without place detail are capped at Level 2 (max 5-6 marks).

Level 1 (1-3 marks): Simple, generic statements identifying strategies or impacts without elaboration (e.g. Free contraceptives were distributed; Fines were given for having extra babies; Birth rates went down; There are more old people). Level 2 (4-6 marks): Developed statements linking policies to how they operated or explaining specific demographic/social impacts (e.g. Couples who agreed to have only one child received housing priority and educational subsidies, which encouraged urban compliance; The policy caused a severe gender imbalance because traditional agrarian families favoured male offspring to work the land and care for elderly relatives). (Max 5 marks if no named example or inappropriate scale). Level 3 (7 marks): 3 or more developed Level 2 statements that describe strategies and evaluate/explain impacts comprehensively, supported by specific place detail (e.g. named policy, precise statistical trends, unique cultural/institutional mechanisms).

(a) (i) Hydraulic action is the sheer force of moving water compressing air into cracks in the river bed and banks, causing rock particles to shatter and break away.

(ii) In traction, large, heavy boulders and stones are rolled along the river bed by the force of the water. In saltation, smaller pebbles and sand grains are bounced or hopped along the river bed in a leap-frogging motion.

(iii) Lateral erosion (via hydraulic action and abrasion) is concentrated on the outer bends of a meander where water velocity is highest, while deposition occurs on the inner bends (slip-off slopes). Over time, this erosion narrows the neck of the meander loop. During a flood or high-discharge event, the river cuts directly through the narrow neck to take the shortest route. Deposition eventually seals off the ends of the abandoned loop, leaving a crescent-shaped oxbow lake separated from the main channel.

(b) (i) Human activities increase flood risk in several ways:
1. Deforestation removes the forest canopy, reducing interception and evapotranspiration, which increases rapid surface runoff.
2. Urbanisation involves paving land with impermeable surfaces (e.g. concrete and tarmac) and installing artificial storm drains, which rapidly channels water into the river and drastically shortens lag time.
3. Overgrazing or intense ploughing compacts the soil, reducing infiltration and promoting faster overland flow into the channel.

(ii) Two soft engineering strategies:
1. Afforestation / Tree planting: Trees intercept rainfall and absorb water through their roots, slowing down runoff and reducing peak discharge.
2. Floodplain zoning: Restricting high-value development on natural floodplains, allowing floodwaters to spread naturally across open pasture or recreational land without damaging settlements.

(c) Case study (e.g. River Ganges / Brahmaputra, Bangladesh):
Causes: Monsoon rainfall (up to 5000 mm in summer months), snowmelt from the Himalayas entering the river system in spring/summer, low-lying flat topography (over 70% of the country is less than 1 metre above sea level), and deforestation in the upper catchment of Nepal and India reducing interception.
Management and evaluation: Construction of 7500 km of flood embankments (levees) to contain high discharge (though breaches can trap floodwaters and worsen long-term waterlogging); creation of dedicated flood action plans including raised flood shelters on stilts (killas) to protect vulnerable rural populations; implementation of early warning flood forecasting systems via meteorological stations; construction of sluice gates to manage drainage. Soft measures like community education and crop adjustment (growing deepwater aman rice) provide sustainable, low-cost resilience, whereas hard structures are costly to maintain against intense river siltation.

(a) (i) [1 mark]
1 mark for an accurate definition:
- The sheer force/power of moving water removing material / compressing air in cracks of bed/banks causing them to break apart.

(ii) [2 marks]
1 mark for describing traction, 1 mark for describing saltation (must distinguish the two):
- Traction: heavy/large boulders/rocks rolled/dragged along the river bed (1).
- Saltation: smaller stones/pebbles bounced/hopped along the river bed (1).

(iii) [3 marks]
3 @ 1 mark (or developed points):
- Faster water flow/higher energy on outside of bend causes lateral erosion / hydraulic action / abrasion (1);
- Slower water flow/lower energy on inside of bend leads to deposition / slip-off slope (1);
- Neck of meander narrows over time (1);
- River cuts straight through the neck during high discharge / flood event (1);
- Deposition cuts off / seals the old loop from the main river channel (1).
[Max 3 marks]

(b) (i) [3 marks]
3 @ 1 mark (or developed points):
- Deforestation / removal of trees reduces interception / reduces evapotranspiration (1) → leading to more / faster overland flow / surface runoff (DEV);
- Urbanisation / building roads/tarmac/concrete creates impermeable surfaces (1) → water cannot infiltrate into soil (DEV);
- Installation of storm drains / gutters channels water directly/rapidly into the river (1) → shortening lag time / raising peak discharge (DEV);
- Farming / livestock grazing compacts soil / ploughing downslope (1) → reduces soil infiltration rates (DEV).
[Max 3 marks]

(b) (ii) [2 marks]
2 @ 1 mark (1 mark per strategy + outline of mechanism):
- Afforestation / tree planting: increases interception / uptake of water to slow runoff (1);
- Floodplain zoning: restricts building on high-risk land / allows floodplain to flood naturally without damaging property (1);
- River restoration / wetland creation: restores meanders/wetlands to store excess water and slow flood peaks (1);
- Flood warnings / preparation: forecasts give populations time to evacuate / move possessions (1).
[Max 2 marks]

(c) [7 marks]
Level 1 (1–3 marks):
- Simple, generic statements describing causes (e.g. heavy rain, melted snow) or flood management methods (e.g. building walls, planting trees, evacuating people).
- No named river or inappropriate scale.

Level 2 (4–6 marks):
- Developed statements explaining either causes in detail or evaluating management strategies (strengths/limitations).
- Max 5 marks if no named example or inappropriate example.

Level 3 (7 marks):
- Comprehensive answer with 3+ developed points covering both detailed causes and evaluated management strategies.
- Uses named example with accurate place-specific detail (e.g. named sub-tributaries, specific locations, accurate statistical data).

Example case study response (River Derwent, Cumbria, UK):

Causes of Flooding:
- Natural: A prolonged atmospheric river brought over 316 mm of heavy rainfall in 24 hours onto already saturated ground in the Lake District fells. Steep-sided volcanic valleys (such as Borrowdale) accelerated rapid surface runoff and shortened lag time. The confluence of the River Cocker and River Derwent at Cockermouth created a huge surge in peak discharge where two swollen channels converged.
- Human: Urban development along the natural floodplain in Cockermouth and Keswick replaced permeable surfaces with tarmac and concrete, reducing infiltration and speeding runoff via storm drains.

Management Methods:
- Hard engineering: In Cockermouth, self-raising pneumatic flood barriers were installed that rise automatically when river levels surge to protect Main Street without permanently obstructing views. Raised flood embankments and reinforced river walls were built along Waterloo Street.
- Soft engineering & catchment management: Upstream in the catchment, tree planting (afforestation) and peatland restoration on the fells slow surface runoff and increase interception storage. Land zoning restrictions prevent further building on high-risk functional floodplains.

Level 1 (1–3 marks):
- Simple, isolated statements stating causes or management methods without elaboration.
- e.g. It rained heavily for days; trees were cut down in the hills; they built walls to hold back water; they planted trees upstream.

Level 2 (4–6 marks):
- Developed statements explaining causes of flooding and/or describing management schemes with logical links.
- e.g. Prolonged heavy rainfall saturated the soil, preventing further infiltration and leading to rapid overland flow which caused river discharge to exceed bankfull capacity (cause); the construction of raised embankments increased the river's channel capacity, preventing floodwaters from spilling onto residential floodplains (management).
(Note: Maximum 5 marks if no named example or inappropriate scale).

Level 3 (7 marks):
- At least 3 developed Level 2 statements explaining causes AND describing management methods.
- Comprehensive place-specific detail included (e.g. named tributaries, specific locations in the basin, rainfall/cost statistics, specific scheme names).

(a) (i) Physical input: Flat land (also accept natural raw materials such as silicon / copper if considered in their physical natural origin).

(ii) Manufacturing process (any one): Automated assembly of circuit boards / precision soldering / software installation / quality testing.
Non-physical output (any one): Corporate profit (or waste emissions).

(iii) Choice: Zone P.
Reasons (any two linked to high-technology industry requirements):
1. Proximity to a university technology campus provides access to highly skilled software engineers, technicians, and research & development facilities.
2. Proximity to an international airport enables rapid global dispatch of high-value, low-bulk finished electronics and easy travel for company executives.
3. High-speed fiber-optic network ensures reliable communication and data transmission.

(b) (i) Two ways manufacturing causes air pollution:
1. Combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) in factory power plants or furnaces releasing greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)) and sulfur dioxide (\(\text{SO}_2\)).
2. Discharge of airborne particulate matter, dust, toxic chemical fumes, or volatile organic compounds (VOCs) through factory smokestacks and exhaust vents.

(ii) Transport links attracting TNCs:
- Motorway networks allow just-in-time delivery of components from component suppliers without requiring large storage facilities, keeping operational costs low.
- International airports allow rapid export of high-value, perishable, or time-sensitive finished goods to global markets.
- Proximity to major transport corridors makes it convenient for management, technical experts, and business clients to travel between headquarters and subsidiary plants.

(c) Case Study Answer Outline (e.g., The M4 Corridor, UK):
- Named location: M4 Corridor, Southern England.
- Physical factors: Flat, easily developed greenfield land on the urban-rural fringe (e.g. near Reading and Swindon); attractive natural environments (e.g. Cotswolds and Berkshire Downs) to attract professional workers.
- Human and economic factors: Direct motorway (M4) and high-speed rail connections linking London and Heathrow Airport for international component import/export; proximity to prestigious research universities (Oxford, Reading, Imperial College London) supplying skilled graduates and R&D partnerships; government development grants and enterprise zones (e.g. at Swindon); agglomeration economies where tech giants (e.g. Microsoft at Thames Valley Park, Vodafone at Newbury) cluster together to share knowledge and specialized services.

(a) (i) [1 mark]
1 mark for identifying a correct physical input from Fig. 5.1:
- Flat land; (1)
- Silicon / copper (if identified as raw material inputs). (1)

(a) (ii) [2 marks]
1 mark for valid process: automated assembly (of circuit boards) / (precision) soldering / software installation / quality testing. (1)
1 mark for valid non-physical output: (corporate) profit. (1)

(a) (iii) [3 marks]
1 mark for selection: Zone P. (1)
2 marks for reasons (2 @ 1 mark):
- Close to university campus / provides skilled workers / research facilities; (1)
- Close to airport / allows fast export of high-value, lightweight products / executive travel; (1)
- High-speed fiber network / allows fast digital communication. (1)
[Note: If Zone Q or R selected, award 0 marks for choice, max 1 for a valid generic reason].

(b) (i) [2 marks]
2 @ 1 mark for distinct ways industries cause air pollution:
- Burning fossil fuels / coal / oil / gas; (1)
- Emissions of sulfur dioxide / nitrogen oxides / carbon dioxide / greenhouse gases; (1)
- Releasing smoke / soot / particulate matter from chimneys; (1)
- Toxic chemical fumes / evaporation of industrial solvents / VOCs. (1)

(b) (ii) [3 marks]
3 @ 1 mark (or 1 + DEV):
- Rapid transport of raw materials / components / prevents delays in production / enables 'just-in-time' logistics; (1)
- Fast delivery of finished goods to national / international markets; (1)
- Airports enable easy access for overseas executives / clients / engineers; (1)
- Reduces transportation costs / increases profit margins. (1) [DEV]

(c) [7 marks - Level of Response]
Level 1 (1–3 marks):
- Simple, generic statements listing location factors (e.g. near roads; plenty of workers; flat land; cheap power).

Level 2 (4–6 marks):
- Developed statements explaining how human and physical factors influenced the location/growth (e.g. the presence of the M4 motorway allows rapid access to Heathrow Airport, enabling fast international distribution of high-value components; nearby universities provide a continuous supply of highly trained engineering and software graduates).
- Max 5 marks if no named example or inappropriate example.

Level 3 (7 marks):
- 3 or more developed Level 2 statements explaining both human and physical factors + fully named case study + specific place-detail (e.g. naming specific junctions, companies like Microsoft/Vodafone, specific institutions like Oxford/Reading University, or specific business parks like Thames Valley Business Park).

Example Case Study: South Sudan

- Name of country/area: South Sudan

- Explanation of Causes:
1. Severe Physical Factors: South Sudan suffers from prolonged dry spells and recurrent droughts, particularly in the northern states such as Northern Bahr el Ghazal. Without adequate rainfall, staple subsistence crops like sorghum and maize fail to germinate, resulting in widespread crop failure. In addition, unseasonal extreme flooding along the White Nile and Sudd wetlands drowns standing crops and destroys livestock pastures.
2. Conflict and Insecurity: Persistent armed conflict and inter-communal violence disrupt the agricultural calendar. Farmers in productive green-belt regions like Equatoria are displaced into UN protection sites or refugee camps in neighbouring Uganda, leaving fertile fields uncultivated. Road ambushes and military checkpoints prevent humanitarian food convoys and commercial traders from distributing grain to remote rural markets.
3. Economic and Infrastructural Barriers: Hyperinflation has drastically reduced the purchasing power of urban and rural households, making imported food unaffordable. The country has fewer than 300 km of paved roads, meaning that during the rainy season, transport routes become impassable, cutting off food supplies and leading to severe localized famines.

Levels of response marking:

Level 1 (1–3 marks):
- Simple, generic statements identifying physical and/or human causes of food shortages.
- e.g. There is no rain so crops die; war stops people from farming; pests eat the crops; poor people cannot afford food.

Level 2 (4–6 marks):
- Developed statements explaining how physical and/or human factors lead to food shortages.
- e.g. Extended drought leads to severe soil moisture deficits, causing staple crops like sorghum to fail and drastically cutting local harvest yields (1 developed point).
- e.g. Armed conflict forces farming communities to flee their land, meaning arable areas are left unplanted and transport routes are blocked, preventing food aid from reaching vulnerable populations (1 developed point).
*(Max 5 marks if no named example or inappropriate scale)*

Level 3 (7 marks):
- At least 3 developed (Level 2) statements.
- Must include accurate, place-specific detail (e.g. named sub-regions, specific conflicts/years, named crops, localized data/organizations).

(a) (i) 342687: Picnic site / recreation ground.
(ii) 378652: Church with tower / place of worship.
(iii) 315629: Level crossing / railway crossing.

(b) (i) Trigonometrical station at Black Crag: Easting is between 38 and 39 (386), Northing is between 69 and 70 (694) -> 386694 (accept 385693 to 387695).
(ii) Spot height at 354611: 184 m.

(c) (i) Straight-line distance from 324648 to 362674: Map measurement = 9.2 cm. At 1:50 000 scale (1 cm = 0.5 km), distance = 9.2 × 0.5 = 4.6 km (allow 4.5 to 4.7 km).
(ii) Direction: North-east (NE).
(iii) Bearing: Measured clockwise from Grid North at 324648 to 362674 = 056° (allow 054° to 058°).

(d) (i) Direction of flow: North-east / from south-west to north-east (contours decrease in height from 80 m in SW to 40 m in NE).
(ii) Three drainage characteristics: River meanders / sinuous course; presence of tributaries / dendritic drainage network; floodplain / marshland adjacent to river channel; confluence at 338654; oxbow lake / cut-off.

(e) Relief south of northing 62:
- High ground / reaches over 400 m (highest spot height 428 m);
- Steep slopes / tightly packed contour lines in the central and eastern sections;
- Deeply incised / narrow V-shaped tributary valleys;
- Slopes generally face north / north-west;
- Land drops steeply from >400 m to below 150 m towards the northern boundary of the area.

(f) (i) Settlement pattern: Nucleated / clustered.
(ii) Reasons with map evidence (any three):
1. Flat/gentle land on valley floor (contour lines widely spaced) makes building easy.
2. Water supply available from the River Marrow / tributary streams.
3. Transport hub/focal point: Convergence of roads (A418 and secondary roads) and railway station.
4. Bridging point: River Marrow is crossed by the main route here.
5. Shelter provided by hills to the south and west.
(iii) Tourist/recreational facilities (any two): Caravan / camping site (at 332658); Golf course (at 345657); Viewpoint (at 338641); Nature reserve / visitor centre; Marked footpath / trail.

(a) (i) Picnic site / recreation ground [1]
(ii) Place of worship with tower / church [1]
(iii) Level crossing [1]

(b) (i) 386694 (allow 385693 to 387695) [1]
(ii) 184 (metres) [1]

(c) (i) 4.6 km (allow 4.5 to 4.7 km) [1]
(ii) North-east / NE [1]
(iii) 056° (allow 054° to 058°) [1]

(d) (i) North-east / from SW to NE [1]
(ii) 1 mark per valid drainage characteristic up to 3 max:
- River meanders / winding course;
- Tributaries join / dendritic drainage;
- Wide floodplain / flat valley floor;
- Marsh / wet ground / alluvium;
- Confluence (of rivers/streams);
- Oxbow lake / cut-off. [3 @ 1 mark]

(e) 1 mark per valid descriptive point of relief up to 4 max:
- High land / upland / hills / mountainous;
- Maximum height >420 m / spot height 428 m;
- Steep slopes / closely spaced contours;
- North-facing slopes / scarp;
- (Deep / narrow) valleys / V-shaped valleys;
- Dissected plateau / ridge;
- Lower ground in the north / valley floor below 150 m. [4 @ 1 mark]

(f) (i) Nucleated / clustered [1]
(ii) 1 mark for each valid reason with map evidence (up to 3 max):
- Flat / gently sloping land on valley floor (1) - easier to build on (1);
- Water supply / fresh water (1) - from River Marrow / tributary (1);
- Route centre / nodal point / junction (1) - convergence of A418 / B6024 / railway (1);
- Bridging point (1) - road crosses River Marrow (1);
- Shelter / protection (1) - from surrounding hills (1). [3 @ 1 mark]
(iii) 1 mark each for any two facilities shown:
- Caravan site / camping site;
- Golf course;
- Viewpoint;
- Walking track / public trail / path;
- Nature reserve / visitor centre. [2 @ 1 mark]

(a) (i) Reading directly from the hydrograph baseflow line gives 8 m³/s.
(ii) The highest point of the hydrograph curve is at 32 m³/s, which occurs at 10:00.
(iii) Lag time = Peak discharge time (10:00) - Peak rainfall time (04:00) = 6 hours.

(b) Downstream changes:
1. Channel width increases (lateral erosion).
2. Channel depth increases (greater discharge and vertical erosion).
(Alternatively: channel bed becomes smoother / hydraulic radius increases / bedload size decreases).

(c) Effects of urbanization:
- Concrete, tarmac, and buildings create impermeable surfaces that reduce infiltration and increase surface runoff.
- Drains and gutters transport water rapidly to the river channel, causing a shorter lag time and a higher/steeper peak discharge.

(a)(i) 8 (m³/s) [1 mark]

(a)(ii) 32 (m³/s) [1 mark]; 10:00 / 10 am [1 mark]

(a)(iii) 6 hours [1 mark]

(b) Any two valid channel changes [2 @ 1 mark]:
- Channel becomes wider / width increases;
- Channel becomes deeper / depth increases;
- Wetted perimeter increases / hydraulic radius increases;
- Bed becomes smoother / less rough;
- Gradient becomes gentler / flatter.
Note: Do not credit valley features (e.g. V-shaped valley becoming flat floodplain) — must be channel characteristics.

(c) Any two valid explanatory points [2 @ 1 mark]:
- Steeper rising limb / higher peak discharge;
- Shorter / reduced lag time;
- Impermeable surfaces / tarmac / concrete reduce infiltration / increase surface runoff;
- Drains / sewers direct water quickly to the river.

(a) (i) Region A (Sub-Saharan Africa) has the highest value in 2020 at 50%.
(ii) Region B decrease = 45% - 31% = 14 percentage points.

(b) Comparison:
- Both regions showed a decline in the percentage of people living in informal settlements.
- Region A had a larger decrease (15 percentage points, from 65% to 50%) than Region C (11 percentage points, from 32% to 21%).
- Region A remained higher in both years compared to Region C.

(c) Pull factors:
- Greater availability of jobs / higher wages.
- Better access to services such as hospitals, schools, and clean piped water.

(d) Challenges of improving informal settlements:
- High cost of installing infrastructure (piped water, sewage, electricity) over steep or unstable terrain.
- Complex land tenure / residents lack legal title deeds, making legal upgrading difficult.

(a)(i) Region A / Sub-Saharan Africa [1 mark]

(a)(ii) 14 (% / percentage points) [1 mark]

(b) 2 marks for comparison with data support [2 @ 1 mark]:
- Both regions decreased / had a downward trend [1];
- Region A decreased more / by 15% compared to Region C which decreased by 11% / Region A started higher (65% vs 32%) and finished higher (50% vs 21%) [1].
Note: Mark requires comparative word or paired data.

(c) Any two pull factors [2 @ 1 mark]:
- Better job opportunities / regular employment / higher wages;
- Better healthcare / hospitals / clinics;
- Better education / schools / universities;
- Better infrastructure / electricity / piped water / sanitation;
- Entertainment / bright lights / modern lifestyle.

(d) Any two valid explanations [2 @ 1 mark]:
- High financial cost / lack of government funds to provide infrastructure;
- Lack of land tenure / informal ownership makes legal redevelopment complex;
- Physical difficulty of installation (e.g. steep slopes, narrow paths, flood plains);
- High population density / overcrowding makes it difficult to install pipes/roads without demolishing homes.

(a) (i) July is the wettest month with 340 mm.
(ii) Highest temperature = 29°C (April), lowest temperature = 26°C (Jan/Jul/Aug/Dec). Range = 29 - 26 = 3°C.

(b) Distribution of rainfall:
- Distinct wet and dry seasons.
- Heavy rainfall concentrated in the middle of the year (May to September), with peak in July (340 mm).
- Very dry period from December to February (all ≤ 20 mm).

(c) Instrument: Barometer. Units: Millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa).

(d) Stevenson Screen design features:
- Painted white to reflect incoming sunlight/solar radiation so the instruments inside do not overheat.
- Raised on legs (approx. 1.2–1.5 m) to avoid measuring heat radiated directly from the ground surface.

(a)(i) July [1 mark]; 340 mm [1 mark]

(a)(ii) 3 (°C) [1 mark] (working: 29 - 26)

(b) Any two descriptive points [2 @ 1 mark]:
- Uneven / seasonal distribution;
- Wet season from April/May to September/October / peak in June–August;
- Dry season from November to March / lowest in Jan–Feb;
- Credit use of supporting statistics (e.g. peak of 340 mm in July vs low of 15 mm in January).

(c) Barometer [1 mark] AND millibars / mb / hectopascals / hPa [1 mark needed for both or instrument with unit].

(d) Two explanations [2 @ 1 mark]:
- White paint reflects sunlight / prevents absorption of solar radiation;
- Raised on legs to prevent measuring ground heat / ground radiation / allows free air circulation.

(a) (i) Country R has a life expectancy of 72 years.
(ii) Negative / inverse relationship (as GNI per capita increases, infant mortality rate decreases).

(b) As GNI per capita rises, life expectancy increases. For example, Country P has a low GNI of $950 and life expectancy of 59 years, whereas Country U has a high GNI of $48,000 and life expectancy of 83 years.

(c) Reasons for lower infant mortality in higher GNI countries:
- Advanced healthcare, trained midwives, and prenatal clinics.
- Universal access to clean piped water, proper sanitation, and routine infant vaccinations.

(d) Limitations of GNI per capita:
- It is an average figure and hides wealth inequality (a few very wealthy individuals can skew the average while many live in poverty).
- It does not account for human rights, environmental pollution, healthcare accessibility, or political stability.

(a)(i) Country R [1 mark]

(a)(ii) Negative / inverse / as GNI increases, infant mortality decreases (or vice versa) [1 mark]

(b) 2 marks for relationship + paired data [2 @ 1 mark]:
- Positive relationship / as GNI rises, life expectancy rises [1];
- Paired data comparing two countries (e.g. Country P at $950 has 59 years while Country U at $48,000 has 83 years) [1].

(c) Any two reasons [2 @ 1 mark]:
- Better healthcare / more doctors / hospitals / specialized neonatal care;
- Better vaccination programs / immunization against childhood diseases;
- Better access to clean water / improved sanitation reduces waterborne disease;
- Better maternal education / maternal nutrition.

(d) Any two valid explanations [2 @ 1 mark]:
- It is an average / hides extremes of wealth and poverty / inequality;
- Does not include informal economy / subsistence farming;
- Does not measure non-economic factors (e.g. safety, human rights, healthcare quality, environment, education).

(a) (i) Feature W is a wave-cut platform (or shore platform). Feature X is a wave-cut notch.
(ii) Hydraulic action (or abrasion / corrasion).

(b) Differences:
- Constructive waves have a stronger swash than backwash (build up beach), whereas destructive waves have a stronger backwash than swash (erode beach).
- Constructive waves have low frequency / long wavelength (6–9 per minute), whereas destructive waves have high frequency / short wavelength (10–15 per minute).

(c) Longshore drift process:
- Prevailing wind causes waves to approach the beach at an oblique angle.
- The swash pushes sediment up the beach at this angle.
- The backwash carries the sediment straight back down the slope at a 90° angle under gravity.
- This repeated zig-zag motion moves sediment along the coastline.

(a)(i) W = Wave-cut platform / shore platform [1 mark]; X = Wave-cut notch / notch [1 mark]

(a)(ii) Hydraulic action / abrasion / corrasion / corrosion / solution [1 mark]

(b) Any two valid comparative differences [2 @ 1 mark]:
- Constructive has stronger swash than backwash, destructive has stronger backwash than swash;
- Constructive has lower wave height / lower energy, destructive has higher wave height / higher energy;
- Constructive has lower wave frequency (6–9 per min), destructive has higher wave frequency (10–15 per min);
- Constructive builds up / deposits, destructive erodes / removes sediment.
Note: Must be comparative.

(c) 3 marks for sequential explanation [3 @ 1 mark]:
- Waves / wind approach the coast at an oblique angle / angle driven by prevailing wind [1];
- Swash moves sediment up the beach at an angle [1];
- Backwash moves sediment straight back down at right angles / 90° under gravity [1];
- Material moves along the coast in a zig-zag pattern [1 max if 3 points reached].

### Detailed Solution

**(a) (i) Purpose of a pilot study (2 marks):**
- Allows students to test their recording sheets, questionnaires, or scoring categories to ensure they work smoothly.
- Helps identify unforeseen problems, timing issues, or safety hazards before the actual fieldwork.
- Provides an opportunity to standardize scoring among group members to ensure consistent grading.

**(a) (ii) Sampling method and advantages (3 marks):**
- **Name:** Systematic sampling (1 mark).
- **Advantages (2 marks):**
1. Simple, clear, and quick to administer without complex calculations during field data collection.
2. Avoids researcher bias in selecting survey sites.
3. Provides an even, regular spatial distribution/coverage along the entire transect line.

**(b) (i) Method for Environmental Quality Survey (4 marks):**
- Work in pairs or small groups at each of the 6 designated locations.
- Agree on clear descriptors/criteria for each bipolar score (-2 to +2) prior to scoring to reduce subjectivity.
- Assess the immediate surroundings (e.g., within a 30-50 m radius of the sampling point) over a fixed observation window.
- Group members score independently and take a mean/average score for each criterion to reduce individual observer bias.
- Carry out surveys on the same day and under similar weather conditions.

**(b) (ii) Calculations & Criterion Change (2 marks):**
- **Total EQS Score for Site 6:** \((+1) + (+1) + (+2) + (+2) + (+2) = +8\) (1 mark).
- **Criterion with greatest change:** Green space/vegetation (changed from \(-2\) at Site 1 to \(+2\) at Site 5, a total change of \(4\) points; or traffic noise \(-2\) to \(+1\) = 3; litter \(-1\) to \(+2\) = 3; building condition \(+1\) to \(+2\) = 1; air cleanliness \(-2\) to \(+1\) = 3). **Answer:** Green space / vegetation (1 mark).

**(b) (iii) Hypothesis 1 Conclusion & Data Support (3 marks):**
- **Conclusion:** Hypothesis 1 is supported / largely true (1 mark reserve).
- **Evidence/Trend:** Overall, the total environmental quality score increases from negative values in the inner areas to positive values in the outer suburbs and rural-urban fringe (1 mark).
- **Comparative data support:** Site 1 (0 m) has a score of \(-6\), which rises steadily to \(+8\) at Site 5 (1600 m) and \(+8\) at Site 6 (2000 m). *(Optional note of anomaly: Site 2 dropped slightly to \(-7\) due to heavy inner-city traffic and litter)* (1 mark).

**(c) (i) Pedestrian count method (3 marks):**
- Use a tally chart or digital clicker/tally counter.
- Measure a precise 10-minute period using a stopwatch or digital timer.
- Stand in a safe, non-obstructive location on the pavement.
- Establish a clear imaginary line across the pavement and count all individuals crossing that line in both directions during the 10 minutes.

**(c) (ii) Definition of high-order service & CBD location (2 marks):**
- **Definition (1 mark):** Goods or services that are expensive, bought infrequently, have a large range (people travel far to buy them), and require a high threshold population to be profitable (e.g., department stores, designer clothing, jewellery).
- **Reason for CBD location (1 mark):** The CBD is the most accessible central nodal point with the convergence of public transport routes and the highest footfall, allowing businesses to draw from the entire urban population.

**(c) (iii) Relationship from Site 1 to Site 5 (2 marks):**
- Negative relationship / inverse correlation: as distance from the CBD increases, pedestrian count decreases consistently.
- Data support: At Site 1 (0 m), pedestrian footfall is \(184\) people per 10 minutes, which declines steadily to \(92\) at Site 2 (400 m), \(46\) at Site 3 (800 m), \(28\) at Site 4 (1200 m), and reaches a minimum of \(14\) at Site 5 (1600 m).

**(c) (iv) Hypothesis 2 Evaluation (4 marks):**
- **Decision:** Partially true / true up to Site 5, but false/rejected overall when including Site 6 (1 mark reserve).
- **Support for trend (Sites 1 to 5):** Pedestrians decrease continuously from \(184\) (Site 1) to \(14\) (Site 5), and percentage of high-order shops drops from \(80\%\) (Site 1) to \(0\%\) (Site 5) (1 mark).
- **Anomaly at Site 6 (Edge-of-town retail park):** Both variables rise significantly at Site 6 (2000 m) — pedestrian count increases to \(65\) people / 10 mins and high-order shops increase to \(60\%\) (12 shops) (1 mark).
- **Explanation of anomaly:** Site 6 is a modern out-of-town retail park offering large retail units, free parking, and high-order comparison shopping, attracting customers from a wide area (1 mark).

**(d) (i) Limitations and Improvements (3 marks):**
*Award 1 mark for each linked pair of limitation and improvement (max 3 marks):*
1. **Limitation:** Pedestrian count was conducted only once at 12:00 noon (snapshot data).
- **Improvement:** Count at multiple times during the day (e.g. morning rush hour, afternoon, weekend) and calculate an average.
2. **Limitation:** Environmental quality survey is subjective (different students have different standards).
- **Improvement:** Take photographs, use decibel meters for noise, air particulate sensors, or agree on photographic benchmarks before scoring.
3. **Limitation:** Only 20 shops surveyed at each site may not be representative.
- **Improvement:** Survey a larger sample (e.g. all commercial premises within 100 m or 200 m radius).

**(d) (ii) Extension fieldwork for Sphere of Influence (2 marks):**
- Carry out a shopper questionnaire asking visitors for their home postal code / settlement or distance travelled, and plot the catchment area / desire lines on a map.
- Conduct a car registration/license plate survey in the car parks to identify the origin of shoppers.

**Part (a)(i) [2 marks]**
1 mark per valid point (max 2):
• Test fieldwork methods / equipment / survey sheets;
• Check timing / see how long data collection takes;
• Identify potential safety hazards / assess risks;
• Practice scoring to ensure consistency between students;
• Modify or improve questions / scoring categories before main study.
*Note: Do not accept 'to get results'.*

**Part (a)(ii) [3 marks]**
• Systematic (sampling) (1 mark reserve);
Plus 2 marks for advantages (2 @ 1 mark):
• Quick / straightforward / easy to implement in the field;
• Eliminates student/researcher bias in selecting locations;
• Ensures regular / uniform spatial coverage across the whole transect / environmental gradient;
• Easy to repeat / replicate.

**Part (b)(i) [4 marks]**
4 @ 1 mark for methodological details:
• Work in pairs / small groups;
• Use a standardised recording sheet / agreed scale (-2 to +2);
• Observe over a fixed area / radius (e.g. 50 m) or set time period;
• Individual students score independently then calculate average / mean;
• Carry out all surveys at the same time / under identical weather conditions;
• Reference to specific criteria (e.g. looking for litter, listening to noise levels, assessing wall/pavement upkeep).

**Part (b)(ii) [2 marks]**
• Total score for Site 6 = +8 (1 mark);
• Criterion with greatest change = Green space / vegetation (1 mark) (Score changed by 4 points: from -2 to +2).

**Part (b)(iii) [3 marks]**
• Conclusion: Hypothesis 1 is true / supported / largely true (1 mark reserve);
• Descriptive statement: Total environmental quality score increases / becomes more positive as distance from the CBD increases (1 mark);
• Paired comparative data: Site 1 score is -6 (at 0 m) compared to Site 5 score of +8 (at 1600 m) / Site 6 score of +8 (at 2000 m) (1 mark);
*(Allow 1 mark for noting anomaly: Site 2 drops to -7 / lower than Site 1 if not used for data mark).*

**Part (c)(i) [3 marks]**
3 @ 1 mark for method:
• Use a digital clicker / tally chart;
• Use a stopwatch / timer for exactly 10 minutes;
• Count all pedestrians passing a fixed marker / crossing an imaginary line across the pavement;
• Count people moving in both directions;
• Conduct the count simultaneously / at the exact same time (12:00) at all sites;
• Stand in an unobtrusive / safe position.

**Part (c)(ii) [2 marks]**
• Definition of high-order service: High threshold population / large range / expensive / comparison goods / bought infrequently / specialist goods (1 mark);
• Explanation for CBD location: Central accessibility / highest footfall / nodal point of transport networks / draws customers from entire urban region (1 mark).

**Part (c)(iii) [2 marks]**
• Negative / inverse correlation / as distance increases, pedestrian count decreases (1 mark);
• Paired data: 184 people / 10 mins at Site 1 (0 m) down to 14 people / 10 mins at Site 5 (1600 m) / decrease of 170 people (1 mark).

**Part (c)(iv) [4 marks]**
• Decision: Partially true / supported from Site 1 to Site 5 but false/rejected overall / rejected due to Site 6 (1 mark reserve);
• Data support for trend (Sites 1 to 5): Pedestrians drop from 184 to 14 AND high-order shops drop from 80% to 0% (1 mark);
• Data support for anomaly (Site 6): Pedestrians increase to 65 AND high-order shops increase to 60% / 12 shops (1 mark);
• Geographical explanation for anomaly: Site 6 is an out-of-town / edge-of-city retail park with large stores, specialist retailers, free car parking, attracting car-borne shoppers (1 mark).

**Part (d)(i) [3 marks]**
3 @ 1 mark for linked limitation + improvement (must pair limitation with appropriate solution):
• Limitation: Pedestrian count only done at one time / 12:00 noon (1) -> Improvement: Count at multiple times during the day / weekday vs weekend and calculate average (1);
• Limitation: EQS is subjective / based on personal opinion (1) -> Improvement: Use measuring instruments (e.g. decibel meter, particulate counter) / photograph sites / use agreed photographic criteria cards (1);
• Limitation: Sample size of 20 shops is too small (1) -> Improvement: Survey all commercial units along a 100 m/200 m stretch (1);
• Limitation: Only one transect studied (1) -> Improvement: Conduct multiple transects in different compass directions from the CBD (1).

**Part (d)(ii) [2 marks]**
2 @ 1 mark for valid extension methods:
• Questionnaire / survey of shoppers asking where they have travelled from / home postcode / distance travelled;
• Plot desire lines / catchment map / isoline map of travel distances;
• Car registration / number plate survey in retail park vs CBD car parks to determine origin.

**(a) (i)**
- To identify potential hazards / dangers (e.g., deep water, slippery rocks, fast flow, sudden weather changes).
- To implement control measures / safety rules (e.g., wear life jackets, non-slip footwear, check weather forecast).

**(a) (ii)**
- Measuring tape (for width)
- Metre rule / measuring rod / graduated ranging pole (for depth)

**(b) (i)**
- Stretch a measuring tape taut across the river channel from the water's edge on one bank to the water's edge on the opposite bank to record total channel width.
- Place a metre rule vertically into the water touching the river bed at regular intervals (e.g., every 0.5 m) across the channel.
- Record the depth at each interval without pushing the ruler into the sediment.
- Calculate average depth from all readings and multiply channel width by average depth ( ext{Area} = ext{Width} imes ext{Average Depth}).

**(b) (ii)**
- ext{Cross-sectional area} = ext{Width} imes ext{Average Depth} = 3.2 ext{ m} imes 0.45 ext{ m} = 1.44 ext{ m}^2

**(b) (iii)**
- Plot point for Site 4 accurately at x = 11.5 km, y = 2.88 m².
- Plot point for Site 5 accurately at x = 16.0 km, y = 5.33 m².

**(b) (iv)**
- Decision: **Hypothesis is true** (✓).
- Supporting trend: Channel cross-sectional area increases steadily with distance downstream.
- Supporting data: At Site 1 (1.5 km from source), the cross-sectional area is 0.18 m², whereas at Site 5 (16.0 km from source), it increases to 5.33 m² (or comparing intermediate sites, e.g. Site 2 is 0.56 m² and Site 4 is 2.88 m²).

**(c) (i)**
- Pick a pebble from the riverbed at regular intervals / using a sampling grid / transect.
- Measure the longest axis (length) of the pebble in millimetres/centimetres using a ruler or calliper.
- Compare the pebble against a standard roundness chart / visual reference scale (Powers scale / Cailleux scale) and assign a score from 1 to 6.
- Record values in a field data recording sheet.

**(c) (ii)**
- To increase the reliability / accuracy of the results and avoid bias / minimise the effect of an anomalous pebble.

**(c) (iii)**
- Pebble size / length decreases downstream / inversely proportional to distance from source.

**(c) (iv)**
1. **Attrition:** Pebbles collide with each other as they are transported downstream, chipping away sharp edges and corners so they become smoother and rounder.
2. **Abrasion / Corrasion:** Pebbles rub against the bedrock and channel banks as they roll/bounce, wearing down irregular angular protrusions.

**(c) (v)**
- Decision: **Hypothesis is true** (✓).
- Trend description: Both elements of the hypothesis are supported — bedload size decreases downstream while roundness score increases downstream.
- Supporting paired data for size: Average pebble length decreases from 14.2 cm at Site 1 (1.5 km) to 2.2 cm at Site 5 (16.0 km).
- Supporting paired data for roundness: Average roundness score increases from 1.6 (very angular) at Site 1 (1.5 km) to 5.4 (well rounded) at Site 5 (16.0 km).

**(d)**
- **Method (3 marks max):**
- Measure a set distance (e.g. 10 metres) along the river bank using a measuring tape.
- Place two poles/markers at the start and finish lines.
- Release a floating object (e.g., orange peel / dog biscuit / table tennis ball) upstream of the start line.
- Use a stopwatch to time how long the float takes to travel between the start and finish lines.
- Repeat the test 3 times across the cross-section to calculate a mean time, then use ext{Velocity} = rac{ ext{Distance}}{ ext{Time}}.
- **Disadvantage / limitation (1 mark):**
- Floats only measure surface velocity (which is faster than average velocity due to less bed friction) / float can get caught in vegetation/eddies / wind can blow the float and alter results.

**(a) (i) [2 marks]**
- 1 mark for each valid reason:
- Identify hazards / risk of injury / deep water / fast currents / slippery rocks / Weil's disease / sudden flash floods;
- Enable precautions / safety measures / emergency plans to be put in place (e.g. life jackets, waders, first aid kit, supervision).

**(a) (ii) [2 marks]**
- 1 mark for each piece of equipment:
- Measuring tape / tape measure (for width);
- Metre rule / graduated rod / ranging pole (for depth).
*(Do not credit 'ruler' alone without qualification or equipment for unrelated variables).*

**(b) (i) [4 marks]**
- 1 mark per valid point (max 4):
- Lay/stretch measuring tape across the river from bank to bank / perpendicular to flow [1];
- Measure total width of the water surface [1];
- Measure depth at fixed/regular intervals across the channel (e.g., every 0.5 m / 10 equal intervals) [1];
- Ensure ruler is held vertically on the riverbed / not pushed into mud [1];
- Calculate average/mean depth [1];
- Multiply channel width by average depth [1].

**(b) (ii) [1 mark]**
- 1.44 (m² / square metres) [1].

**(b) (iii) [2 marks]**
- 1 mark for accurate plot of Site 4 (x = 11.5, y = 2.88) [1];
- 1 mark for accurate plot of Site 5 (x = 16.0, y = 5.33) [1].

**(b) (iv) [3 marks]**
- 1 mark (Reserve) for ticking **Hypothesis is true** [1];
- 1 mark for descriptive statement showing increase downstream (e.g., area increases from upper course to lower course) [1];
- 1 mark for comparative/paired statistics with units from Table 1.1 (e.g. 0.18 m² at Site 1 / 1.5 km compared to 5.33 m² at Site 5 / 16.0 km) [1].

**(c) (i) [4 marks]**
- 1 mark per valid point (max 4):
- Sampling technique described (e.g. pick pebble at ruler intervals / random sampling) [1];
- Measure length of longest axis / A-axis with ruler / callipers [1];
- Compare shape to visual roundness chart / Powers' scale / Cailleux scale [1];
- Record score (1 to 6) / category (angular to rounded) for each pebble [1];
- Calculate mean length / mean roundness score for the site [1].

**(c) (ii) [1 mark]**
- 1 mark for: To be representative / reliable / reduce bias / anomaly effect [1].

**(c) (iii) [1 mark]**
- 1 mark for: Pebble length / size decreases with distance downstream [1].

**(c) (iv) [2 marks]**
- 1 mark each for two explained processes (2 @ 1 mark):
- Attrition: pebbles collide with one another / hit each other, chipping sharp edges [1];
- Abrasion / corrasion: pebbles scrape / rub against the bed/banks smoothing surfaces [1].

**(c) (v) [4 marks]**
- 1 mark (Reserve) for ticking **Hypothesis is true** [1];
- 1 mark for general statement confirming both parts (size decreases AND roundness increases downstream) [1];
- 1 mark for paired data for pebble size with units (e.g. 14.2 cm at Site 1 to 2.2 cm at Site 5) [1];
- 1 mark for paired data for roundness score (e.g. score of 1.6 at Site 1 to 5.4 at Site 5) [1].

**(d) [4 marks]**
- 3 marks max for method:
- Measure a fixed distance (e.g. 5 m or 10 m) along the bank [1];
- Place markers / ranging poles at start and finish points [1];
- Place float into water upstream of start marker [1];
- Time transit between start and finish markers using stopwatch [1];
- Repeat across channel (left, centre, right) to get average time [1];
- Calculate velocity = distance ÷ time [1].
- 1 mark max for disadvantage/limitation:
- Only measures surface velocity / affected by friction with air / wind / object may get caught in vegetation or rocks / turbulent eddies cause deviation [1].