Welcome to Gender Development!

In this chapter, we explore one of the most debated questions in Psychology: How do we develop our sense of being male, female, or another identity? Some psychologists argue it is all down to our biology (nature), while others believe we learn our gender roles from the people and media around us (nurture). We will also look at gender incongruence, which occurs when a person’s internal sense of gender does not match their biological sex.

Don't worry if these theories seem to overlap at first! By the end of these notes, you will see how each theory provides a different piece of the puzzle.

1. Biological Explanations of Gender

The biological approach suggests that gender behavior is the result of our physical makeup—specifically our chromosomes and hormones. This view assumes that "gender" and "sex" are essentially the same thing.

Chromosomes

Most people have 23 pairs of chromosomes. The 23rd pair determines biological sex. Usually, females have \(XX\) chromosomes and males have \(XY\) chromosomes. The \(Y\) chromosome contains a gene that triggers the development of testes and the production of male hormones.

Hormones

Hormones are chemical messengers that travel through the blood. They shape the development of the brain and body before birth and during puberty.

  • Testosterone: Predominantly a male hormone. It is linked to the development of male sex organs and has been associated with behaviors like increased aggression and spatial ability.
  • Oestrogen: Predominantly a female hormone. It governs the female reproductive system (like the menstrual cycle) and is often associated with emotional reactivity and nurturing behaviors.
  • Oxytocin: Often called the "love hormone." It is produced in larger amounts in women, especially during childbirth and breastfeeding. It promotes bonding, trust, and intimacy.

Key Takeaway: The biological explanation says your gender is "hard-wired" by your DNA and the chemicals in your body.

2. Cognitive Explanations: How We Think About Gender

Cognitive psychologists believe that as a child's brain develops, their understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated. They aren't just passive learners; they actively seek to understand the world.

Kohlberg’s Theory

Kohlberg argued that children go through three stages as they get older. He believed gender understanding follows the development of the brain's thinking power.

  1. Gender Identity (Ages 2–3): The child can label themselves as a boy or girl. However, they don't realize gender is permanent. Example: A boy might say "I want to be a mummy when I grow up."
  2. Gender Stability (Ages 4): The child realizes they will stay the same gender for life. However, they can still be confused by external changes. Example: If a man puts on a dress, a child might think he has actually become a woman.
  3. Gender Constancy (Ages 6–7): The child understands that gender remains the same across all situations, even if appearance changes. Once they reach this stage, they start looking for "gender-appropriate" role models to imitate.

Martin and Halverson’s Gender Schema Theory

Martin and Halverson agree that children are active learners, but they think gender development starts much earlier (as soon as a child has a basic identity at age 2 or 3).

  • Schemas: These are mental "folders" or frameworks. A child develops a "gender schema" containing information about what boys and girls do.
  • In-group vs. Out-group: Children identify with their in-group (their own gender) and pay close attention to information relevant to them. They ignore or forget "out-group" information (stuff related to the other gender).
  • Fixed Views: Children often ignore information that doesn't fit their schema. Example: If a child sees a male nurse, they might remember him as a doctor because it "fits" their mental folder better.

Quick Review: Kohlberg says we need Constancy before we copy others; Martin and Halverson say we only need Identity to start building our gender "folders."

3. Social Learning Theory (SLT)

SLT suggests gender is learned from the environment. It focuses on how parents, peers, and the world "shape" a child's behavior.

Key Processes in SLT:

  • Observation and Imitation: Children watch role models (parents, teachers, celebrities) and copy their gendered behavior.
  • Direct Reinforcement: Children are praised for "gender-appropriate" behavior. Example: A girl is told she looks "pretty" in a skirt, while a boy might be told "big boys don't cry."
  • Vicarious Reinforcement: If a child sees someone else being rewarded for a behavior, they are more likely to copy it. If they see someone punished, they avoid it.
  • Identification: This is when a child feels a bond with a role model and wants to be like them (usually someone of the same gender).

The Influence of Culture and Media

  • Culture: If gender roles were purely biological, they would be the same everywhere. However, some cultures have very different expectations of men and women, suggesting that nurture plays a huge role.
  • Media: TV, movies, and advertisements often show stereotypes (e.g., men as adventurous, women as domestic). Children who watch more TV often hold more traditional gender views.

Memory Aid: Think of SLT as the "Mirror Theory"—children reflect what they see in the world around them.

4. Gender Incongruence

Gender Incongruence (sometimes related to the diagnosis of Gender Dysphoria) occurs when a person's gender identity does not match their biological sex assigned at birth. Psychologists look at both biological and social causes for this.

Biological Explanations

  • Brain Structure: Some research suggests that specific areas of the brain (like the BSTc) in people with gender incongruence more closely match the brain structure of the gender they identify with, rather than their biological sex.
  • Hormonal Exposure: It is suggested that unusual levels of hormones in the womb during pregnancy might affect the development of the "gendered" parts of the brain.

Social and Cultural Explanations

  • Social Explanations: Some argue that extreme life experiences or childhood environments might influence gender identity. For example, some psychodynamic theories suggest it could be related to relationships with parents, though evidence for this is limited.
  • Cultural Explanations: In some cultures, "third genders" or gender fluidity are widely accepted. This suggests that how a society views gender can influence how individuals experience and express their own identities.

Key Takeaway: Gender incongruence is a complex experience. Modern psychology increasingly looks at the interaction between biological predispositions and the social environment.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

  • Confusing Stability and Constancy: Remember: Stability = I stay the same over time. Constancy = I stay the same regardless of appearance/situation.
  • Thinking SLT and Cognitive theories are the same: SLT is about external rewards and imitation. Cognitive theories are about internal thought processes and mental development.
  • Ignoring the "Interactionist" view: In your exam, it is often helpful to mention that gender development is likely a mix of both biology and learning!

Great job! You've covered the main explanations for how gender develops. Why not try to list three ways the media has influenced your own view of gender roles today?